Early Roman history
The emergence of the Roman state
The city of Rome was centered around settlements at a ford across the Tiber River, at the crossroads of trade routes. According to archaeological evidence, Rome was founded as a village probably in the 9th century BC. e. two central Italian tribes, the Latins and the Sabines (Sabines), on the Palatine, Capitoline and Quirinal hills. The Etruscans, who had previously settled north of Rome in Etruria, by the end of the 7th century BC. e. established political control over the region.
The Legend of Romulus and Remus
The she-wolf feeds Romulus and Remus
Ancient Roman god of war Mars and Rhea Silvia Rubens P. P.
Four years later, at the behest of their grandfather, Romulus and Remus went to the Tiber to look for a place to found a new colony, Alba Longa. According to legend, Remus chose the lowland between the Palatine and Capitoline hills, but Romulus insisted on founding a city on the Palatine hill. Appeal to signs did not help, a quarrel broke out, during which Romulus killed his brother. Repenting of the murder of Remus, Romulus founded a city to which he gave his name (Latin Roma), and became its king. The founding date of the city is considered to be April 21, 753 BC. e. , when the first furrow was drawn around the Palatine Hill by a plow. According to medieval legend, the city of Siena was founded by Remus's son, Senius.
Latins and Etruscans
From the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Latin-Siculian tribes settled in the lower reaches of the Tiber, a branch of the Italics who came to the Apennine Peninsula from the Danube regions at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The Latins settled on the Palatine and Velia hills, and the Sabines occupied the neighboring hills. After the unification of several Latin and Sabine villages in the middle of the 8th century. BC e. on the Capitoline Hill a fortress common to all was built - Rome.
The Etruscans were ancient tribes that inhabited the first millennium BC. e. the north-west of the Apennine Peninsula (region - ancient Etruria, modern Tuscany) between the Arno and Tiber rivers and which created a developed civilization that preceded the Roman one and had a great influence on it. Roman culture inherited many customs and traditions from the Etruscan culture. Around the 2nd century BC. e., due to assimilation by Rome, the Etruscan civilization ceased to exist.
Beginning of Rome
In order to increase the population of Rome in the early stages of its development, Romulus granted the newcomers the rights, freedoms and citizenship equal to the first settlers, for whom he set aside the lands of the Capitoline Hill. Thanks to this, fugitive slaves, exiles and simply adventurers from other cities and countries began to flock to the city.
Rome also lacked the female population - neighboring peoples rightly considered it shameful for themselves to enter into kinship alliances with a crowd of vagabonds, as they called the Romans at that time. Then Romulus came up with a solemn holiday - Consualia, with games, wrestling and various kinds of gymnastic and cavalry exercises. Many neighbors of the Romans, including the Sabines (Sabines), gathered for the holiday. At a moment when the spectators and, in particular, the spectators were captivated by the progress of the game, according to a conventional sign, a large crowd of Romans with swords and spears in their hands attacked the unarmed guests. In the confusion and crush, the Romans captured the women, Romulus himself took the Sabine Hersilia as his wife. Weddings with the ritual of bride kidnapping have since become a Roman custom.
Tsarist period
Seven kings
Tradition invariably speaks of seven Roman kings, always calling them by the same names and in the same order: Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Tarquinius Priscus (the Ancient), Servius Tullius and Lucius Tarquinius the Proud.
Romulus
After the Romans abducted the Sabine women, war broke out between Rome and the Sabines. Led by their king Tatius, they set out for Rome. However, the abducted women managed to reconcile both warring parties, since they had already taken root in Rome. Then the Romans and Sabines made peace and lived under the rule of Romulus and Tatius. However, six years after the joint reign, Tatius was killed by the offended citizens of the colony of Cameria, where he was making a trip. Romulus became king of the united nations. He is credited with the creation of the Senate, which at that time consisted of 100 "fathers", the strengthening of the Palatine and the formation of the Roman community (the division of the Romans into patricians and plebeians).
Numa Pompilius
Servius Tullius
Republican Rome
Early Roman Republic (509-265 BC)
The struggle between plebeians and patricians
The early history of Rome was marked by the dominance of the family aristocracy, the patricians, except for whom no one could sit in the Senate. They were subordinated to the plebeians, who were, perhaps, descendants of the defeated people. However, it is possible that by origin the patricians were simply wealthy landowners who organized themselves into clans and appropriated the privileges of the upper caste. The power of the elected king was limited by the Senate and the assembly of clans, which granted the king after the election imperium(supreme power). Plebeians were not allowed to bear arms, their marriages were not recognized as legal - these measures were designed to leave them without protection, without the support of family and clan organization. Since Rome was the northernmost outpost of the Latin tribes, adjacent to the Etruscan civilization, Roman aristocratic education resembled that of the Spartans in its emphasis on patriotism, discipline, courage and military skill.
The overthrow of the monarchy did not lead to major changes in the political structure of Rome. The place of the king for life was taken by two consuls (“those leading the way”), elected for one year from among the patricians. They led the meetings of the Senate and the People's Assembly, monitored the implementation of decisions made by these bodies, distributed citizens among centuries, monitored the collection of taxes, exercised judicial power, and commanded troops during the war. At the end of their term, they reported to the Senate and could be subject to prosecution. The assistants to the consuls in judicial matters were the quaestors, to whom management of the treasury later passed. The People's Assembly was the highest state body; it approved laws, declared war, made peace, and elected all officials (magistrates). The role of the Senate increased: not a single law could come into force without its approval; he controlled the activities of magistrates, decided on foreign policy issues, and supervised finances and religious life.
The main content of the history of early republican Rome was the struggle of the plebeians for equal rights with the patricians, who monopolized the right to sit in the Senate, occupy the highest magistracy and receive land from the “public field.” The plebeians demanded the abolition of debt bondage and the limitation of debt interest. The growing military role of the plebeians (by the beginning of the 5th century BC they already constituted the bulk of the Roman army) allowed them to exert effective pressure on the patrician Senate. In 494 BC e. after another refusal of the Senate to satisfy their demands, they left Rome for the Sacred Mountain (first secession), and the patricians had to make concessions: a new magistracy was established - the tribunes of the people, elected exclusively from the plebeians (initially two) and possessing sacred immunity; they had the right to interfere with the activities of other magistrates (intercession), impose a ban on any of their decisions (veto) and bring them to justice. In 457 BC e. the number of tribunes of the people increased to ten. In 452 BC e. The plebeians forced the Senate to create a commission of ten members (decemvirs) with consular power to write laws, primarily for the sake of fixing (that is, limiting) the powers of the patrician magistrates. In 443 BC e. The consuls lost the right to distribute citizens among centuries, which was transferred to the new magistrates - two censors, elected from among the patricians every five years by the comitia centuriata for a period of 18 months. In 421 BC e. Plebeians received the right to hold the position of quaestor, although they realized it only in 409 BC. e. It was restored on the condition that one of them must be a plebeian, but the Senate achieved the transfer of judicial power from the consuls to the praetors, elected from the patricians. In 337 BC. e. The position of praetor also became available to the plebeians. In 300 BC e. According to the law of the Ogulniy brothers, plebeians received access to the priestly colleges of pontiffs and augurs.
Thus, all magistracies were open to plebeians. Their struggle with the patricians ended in 287 BC. e. The victory of the plebeians led to a change in the social structure of Roman society: having achieved political equality, they ceased to be a class distinct from the patrician class; noble plebeian families, together with the old patrician families, formed a new elite - nobility. This contributed to the weakening of the internal political struggle in Rome and the consolidation of Roman society, which allowed it to mobilize all its forces for active foreign policy expansion.
Rome's conquest of Italy
After the transformation of Rome into a republic, the territorial expansion of the Romans began. Initially, their main opponents were the Etruscans in the north, the Sabines in the northeast, the Aequians in the east, and the Volscians in the southeast.
In 509-506 BC. e. Rome repelled the advance of the Etruscans, who came out in support of the overthrown Tarquin the Proud, and in 499-493 BC. e. defeated the Arician Federation of Latin Cities (First Latin War), concluding an alliance with it on the terms of non-interference in each other's internal affairs, mutual military assistance and equality in the division of spoils. This allowed the Romans to begin a series of wars with the Sabines, Volscians, Aequi and powerful southern Etruscan settlements.
The strengthening of the foreign policy positions of the Romans in Central Italy was interrupted by the invasion of the Gauls, who in 390 BC. e. defeated the Roman army at the Allia River, captured and burned Rome; The Romans took refuge in the Capitol. Although the Gauls soon abandoned the city, Roman influence in Latium weakened significantly; the alliance with the Latins actually disintegrated; the Volscians, Etruscans and Aequians resumed their war against Rome. However, the Romans managed to repel the onslaught of neighboring tribes. After a new Gallic invasion of Latium in 360 BC. e. the Roman-Latin alliance was revived (358 BC). By the middle of the 4th century. BC e. Rome already had complete control over Latium and Southern Etruria and continued expansion into other areas of Italy. In 343 BC e. the inhabitants of the Campanian city of Capua, having suffered defeat from the Samnites, transferred to Roman citizenship, which caused the First Samnite War (343-341 BC), which ended in a Roman victory and the subjugation of Western Campania. The growth of the power of Rome led to a worsening of its relations with the Latins, which provoked the Second Latin War (340-338 BC), as a result of which the Latin Union was dissolved, part of the lands of the Latins was confiscated, and a separate agreement was concluded with each community. Residents of a number of Latin cities received Roman citizenship; the rest were equal to the Romans only in property rights, but not in political rights. During the Second (327-304 BC) and Third (298-290 BC) Samnite Wars, the Romans defeated the Samnite Federation and defeated its allies - the Etruscans and Gauls. They were forced to enter into an unequal alliance with Rome and cede part of their territory to it. Rome strengthened its influence in Lucania and Etruria, established control over Picenum and Umbria, and took possession of Senonian Gaul, becoming the hegemon of all of Central Italy. The penetration of Rome into southern Italy led in 280 BC. e. to war with Tarentum, the most powerful of the states of Magna Graecia, and its ally, the Epirus king Pyrrhus. In 276-275 BC. e. The Romans defeated Pyrrhus, which allowed them to 270 BC. e. to subjugate Lucania, Bruttium and all of Magna Graecia. Rome's conquest of Italy up to the borders with Gaul ended in 265 BC. e. capture of Volsinium in southern Etruria. The communities of Southern and Central Italy entered the Italic Union led by Rome.
Late Roman Republic (264-27 BC)
Rome becomes a world power
Rome's expansion into other Mediterranean territories made it inevitable that the Roman Republic would clash with Carthage, the leading power in the Mediterranean. As a result of three wars between the two powers, Rome destroyed the Carthaginian state and incorporated its territory into the republic. This allowed him to continue expansion into other areas of the Mediterranean. After the conquests of the III-I centuries. BC e. Rome became a world power, and the Mediterranean became an inland Roman lake.
First Punic War
The official cause of war for the Romans was the siege and capture of the Spanish city of Saguntum (an ally of Rome) by the Carthaginian commander Hannibal. After this, Rome declared war on Carthage. At first, the Carthaginian army led by Hannibal prevailed over the Roman troops. The most significant of the victories of the Carthaginians is the Battle of Cannae, after which Macedonia entered the war on the side of Carthage. However, the Romans were soon able to seize the initiative and went on the offensive. The last battle of the war was the Battle of Zama, after which Carthage sued for peace. According to the terms of the peace, Carthage paid 10,000 talents of indemnity, could not maintain more than 10 warships and conduct military operations without the permission of the Senate, and gave Spain to the Romans.
As a result of the war, Carthage lost all its possessions outside Africa. Rome became the strongest state in the West.
Third Macedonian War
In 171-168 BC. e. the Romans defeated the coalition of Macedonia, Epirus, Illyria and the Aetolian Union (Third Macedonian War) and destroyed the Kingdom of Macedon, creating in its place four independent districts that paid them tribute; Illyria was also divided into three Roman-dependent districts; The Aetolian League ceased to exist.
As a result of another victory of Rome in the Third Macedonian War, he no longer needed the support of his former allies - Pergamum, Rhodes and the Achaean League. The Romans robbed Rhodes of its possessions in Asia Minor and dealt a blow to its trading power by declaring neighboring Delos a free port. Rome became the hegemon of the Eastern Mediterranean.
Third Punic War
During the Third Punic War (149-146 BC), Carthage was taken by the Roman army and destroyed to the ground. As a result, the Carthaginian state ceased to exist.
Gracchi brothers
In 133 BC e. tribune of the people Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus put forward a project for land reform, which was supposed to limit the limit of ownership ager publicus(public land) 500 jugers - 125 hectares. It was also allowed to increase the land allotment by 250 yugers for each son, but not more than by two sons. The rest of the land was confiscated and divided among landless citizens in plots of 30 yugers without the right to sell. After a bitter struggle, the law was passed and a commission was created to redistribute land. However, Tiberius was soon killed. A few years later, his younger brother Guy became the tribune of the people, proposing a series of bills. Soon, however, he was forced to commit suicide during the outbreak of unrest.
The end of the 2nd and the beginning of the 1st century BC. e.
An important issue at the beginning of the 1st century BC. e. The problem of the rights of the Italians arose - during the conquest of Italy by Rome, the conquered communities received various rights, which, as a rule, were limited in comparison with the Roman ones. At the same time, Italics served in the Roman army and were often used as “cannon fodder”. The inability to obtain rights equal to those of Roman citizens pushed the Italics into the Allied War.
Dictatorship of Sulla
Meeting of the Roman Senate (Cicero attacks Catiline)
Gaius Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar
Octavian Augustus and Mark Antony
After the death of Caesar, Octavian received control of Cisalpine and most of Transalpine Gaul. Mark Antony, who saw himself as Caesar's sole successor, began to openly compete with him for future power over Rome. However, a disdainful attitude towards Octavian, numerous intrigues, an attempt to take away Cisalpine Gaul from the previous procurator Brutus and the recruitment of troops for the war aroused hostility towards Antony among the people.
Imperial Rome
Article The Roman Empire contains general material from the imperial period of RomeEarly Roman Empire. Principate (27/30 BC - 235 AD)
Reign of Augustus (31 BC - 14 AD)
The basis of Octavian's powers were the tribunate and the highest military authority. In 29 BC. e. he received the honorary nickname "Augustus" ("Exalted") and was proclaimed princeps (first person) of the Senate; hence the name of the new political system - the principate. In 28 BC. e. the Romans defeated the tribe mezov and organized the province of Moesia. In Thrace, meanwhile, a fierce struggle unfolded between supporters and opponents of the Roman orientation, which postponed the final conquest of Thrace by the Romans for several years. In 24 BC e. The Senate freed Augustus from any restrictions imposed by law in 13 BC. e. his decisions were equated to Senate resolutions. At 12 BC e. he became the great pontiff, and in 2 BC. e. was awarded the title of “Father of the Fatherland.” Having received in 29 BC. e. censorship powers, Augustus expelled the Republicans and supporters of Antony from the Senate and reduced its composition. Augustus carried out military reform, completing the century-long process of creating a Roman professional army. Now the soldiers served for 20-25 years, receiving a regular salary and constantly being in a military camp without the right to start a family. Upon retirement, they were given a monetary reward and given a plot of land. the principle of voluntary recruitment of citizens into legions and provincials into auxiliary units; guard units were created to protect Italy, Rome and the emperor - guardsmen (praetorians). For the first time in Roman history, special police units were organized - cohorts of vigils (guards) and city cohorts.
Yulio-Claudian Dynasty
Tiberius
Tiberius Claudius Nero (14 - 37 AD) was the second Roman emperor, adopted son and successor of Octavian Augustus, founder of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He became famous as a successful military leader, but his reputation as an arrogant and dissolute man is most likely unfounded.
Together with his younger brother Drusus, Tiberius was able to expand the borders of the Roman Empire along the Danube and into Germany (16 - 7 BC, 4 - 9 AD).
In order to save public funds, the emperor reduced cash distributions and the number of spectacles. Tiberius continued the fight against the abuses of provincial governors, completely eliminated the taxation system and switched to direct tax collection.
Caligula
Caligula
Caligula (Full name Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) (37 - 41 AD) - third Roman emperor, grandnephew of Tiberius. Caligula tried to establish an unlimited monarchy, introduced a magnificent court ceremony and demanded that his subjects call him “lord” and “god,” and the imperial cult was implanted everywhere. He pursued a policy of open humiliation of the Senate and terror against the aristocracy and horsemen. Caligula's support was the praetorians and the army, as well as the urban plebs, to attract whose sympathy he spent huge amounts of money on distributions, spectacles and construction. The depleted treasury was replenished by confiscation of the property of convicts. Caligula's regime caused general discontent, and in January 41 he was killed as a result of a conspiracy by the Praetorian elite.
Claudius I
Claudius (41 - 54 AD) is the fourth emperor, uncle of Emperor Caligula. After killing his nephew, he was found by a soldier of the Praetorian Guard, brought to the camp and, against his will, proclaimed emperor. Having established himself in power, he executed the organizers of the murder of Caligula, repealed many odious laws, and granted amnesty to those illegally convicted. Since childhood, he had poor health and was considered weak-minded, although some historians argue that he was a very wise and atypical moral politician for that time, therefore he was not understood by his contemporaries and was nicknamed weak-minded. During the reign of Claudius, the policy of Romanization and the gradual granting of civil rights to the conquered population continued, a new water supply system was built, the port of Portus was built, and Lake Fuscinsko was drained.
Nero
Nero (54 - 68 AD) was the fifth Roman emperor, the last of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. The Roman Emperor Nero became famous and made his contribution to history as an ambiguous and complex person, who, on the one hand, is famous for his cruelty, paranoia, fear of conspiracies and assassination attempts, and on the other, known as a lover of the fine arts, poetry, feasts and sports games.
Nero's reign was characterized by extreme cruelty. So, his wife Octavia, who could not give him an heir, was killed, hundreds of patricians and citizens of the Roman Empire who were suspected of conspiracies or disapproval of his policies were killed. Nero's instability and complex mental state is confirmed by the fire he started in Rome. To get an unforgettable experience and emotional rush, which he needed as a poet and theater actor, Nero set fire to the city and watched the fire from a hill, sharing his impressions with the patricians and courtiers around him. The investigation into the causes of the fire confirmed the emperor’s cruelty. They put forward the idea of communion
The history of Ancient Rome begins with the emergence of the city and traditionally dates back to 753 BC.
The site where the settlement was founded had a favorable landscape. A nearby ford made it easy to cross the nearby Tiber. The Palatine and neighboring hills provided natural defensive fortifications for the surrounding wide, fertile plain.
Over time, thanks to trade, Rome began to grow and strengthen. A convenient shipping route near the city ensured a constant flow of goods in both directions.
Rome's interaction with the Greek colonies provided the ancient Romans with the opportunity to take Hellenic culture as a model to build their own. From the Greeks they adopted literacy, architecture and religion - the Roman divine pantheon is almost identical to the Greek. The Romans also took a lot from the Etruscans. Etruria, located north of Rome, also had an advantageous position for trade, and the ancient Romans learned trading skills directly from the Etruscan example.
Royal period (mid-8th century - 510 BC)
The royal period was characterized by a monarchical form of government. Since there is practically no written evidence of that era, very little is known about this period. Ancient historians based their works on oral histories and legends, since many documents were destroyed by the Gauls during the sack of Rome (after the Battle of Allia in the 4th century BC). Therefore, it is likely that there will be a serious distortion of events that actually occurred.
The traditional version of Roman history, as told by Livy, Plutarch and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, tells of seven kings who ruled Rome in the first centuries after its founding. The total chronology of their reign is 243 years, that is, an average of almost 35 years each. The kings, with the exception of Romulus, who founded the city, were elected by the people of Rome for life, and none of them used military force to win or retain the throne. The main distinctive sign of the king was a purple toga.
The king was vested with the highest military, executive and judicial powers, officially granted to him by the comitia curiata (an assembly of patricians of the 30 curiae) after the passing of the Lex curiata de imperio (special law) at the beginning of each reign.
Early Republic (509-287 BC)
Between the 8th and 6th centuries BC. Rome rapidly grew from an ordinary trading city into a thriving metropolis. In 509 BC. The seventh king of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, was overthrown by his rival for power, Lucius Junius Brutus, who reformed the system of government and became the founder of the Roman Republic.
Rome originally owed its prosperity to trade, but war made it a powerful force in the ancient world. Rivalry with North African Carthage united the powers of Rome and helped increase the latter's wealth and prestige. The cities were constant trading competitors in the Western Mediterranean, and after Carthage was defeated in the Third Punic War, Rome gained almost absolute dominance in the region.
The plebes were outraged by the rule of the patricians: the latter, thanks to their dominance over the courts, interpreted customs in their own interests, allowing the rich and noble to be harsh in relation to their dependent debtors. However, unlike some Greek city-states, the plebeians of Rome did not call for land redistribution, attack the patricians, or try to seize power. Instead, a kind of “strike”—secessio plebis—was declared. In effect, the plebeians temporarily “seceded” from the state under the leadership of their elected leaders (tribunes) and refused to pay taxes or fight in the army.
Twelve tables
Things remained in this state for several years before the patricians decided to make some concessions, agreeing to put the laws in writing. A commission composed of plebeians and patricians duly prepared the Twelve Tables of Laws, which were exhibited in the city forum (around 450 BC). These Twelve Tables formulated a rather harsh set of laws, but the Romans of all classes were aware of their justice, thanks to which it was possible to defuse social tensions in society. The laws of the Twelve Tables formed the basis of all subsequent Roman law, perhaps the greatest contribution to history made by the Romans.
Middle Republic (287-133 BC)
The influx of booty and tribute from conquest led to the emergence of a class of extremely wealthy Romans - senators, who fought as generals and governors, and businessmen - the equites (or equestrians), who levied taxes in the new provinces and supplied the army. Each new victory led to an influx of more and more slaves: during the last two centuries BC. the Mediterranean slave trade became a huge business, with Rome and Italy being the main destination markets.
Most slaves had to work on the land of senators and other rich people, who began to develop and improve their estates using new techniques. Ordinary farmers could not compete with these then modern holdings. More and more small farmers lost their lands to the ruin of their rich neighbors. The gap between classes widened as more and more farmers left their land and headed to Rome, where they joined the ranks of the growing class of landless and rootless people.
The juxtaposition of great wealth and mass poverty in Rome itself poisoned the political climate—Roman politics was dominated by warring factions. These were not modern political parties representing completely different ideologies, but rather ideas around which different factions grouped. Supporters of the idea of land redistribution, who had a minority in the Senate, advocated the division and distribution of land resources among the landless poor. Those who supported the opposite idea, representing the majority, wanted to preserve intact the interests of the “best people”, that is, themselves.
Late Republic (133-27 BC)
In the 2nd century BC. Two Roman tribunes, the Gracchi brothers, tried to carry out land and a number of political reforms. Despite the fact that the brothers were killed defending their position, thanks to their efforts, legislative reform was carried out, and rampant corruption in the Senate became less obvious.
Army reform
The decline in the number of small property owners in the Italian countryside had profound consequences for Roman politics. It was farmers who were the traditional basis of the Roman army, buying their own weapons and equipment. This system of recruiting had long become problematic as Rome's armies spent long years abroad on military campaigns. The absence of men in the home undermined the small family's ability to maintain their farm. Thanks to Rome's expanding overseas military expansion and the decrease in the number of small landowners, recruitment into the army from this class became more and more difficult.
In 112 BC year, the Romans faced a new enemy - the tribes of the Cimbri and Teutons, who decided to move to another area. Tribes invaded territories that the Romans had occupied a couple of decades earlier. The Roman armies directed against the barbarians were destroyed, culminating in the greatest defeat at the Battle of Arausio (105 BC) in which, according to some sources, about 80 thousand Roman soldiers were killed. Fortunately for the Romans, the barbarians did not invade Italy at that time, but continued on their way through modern France and Spain.
The defeat at Arausio caused shock and panic in Rome. The commander Gaius Mari carries out military reform, requiring landless citizens to undergo compulsory military service. The structure of the army itself was also reformed.
The recruitment of landless Romans, as well as the improvement of conditions of service in the Roman legions, had an extremely important result. This closely linked the interests of the soldiers and their generals, which was explained by the commanders’ guarantee that each legionnaire would receive a land plot upon completion of his service. Land was the only commodity in the pre-industrial world that provided economic security to a family.
The commanders, in turn, could count on the personal loyalty of their legionnaires. The Roman legions of that time became more and more like private armies. Considering that the generals were also leading politicians in the Senate, the situation became even more complicated. Opponents of the commanders tried to block the latter’s efforts to distribute land in favor of their people, which led to quite predictable results - the commanders and soldiers became even closer together. It is not surprising that in some cases, generals at the head of their armies tried to achieve their goals through unconstitutional means.
First triumvirate
By the time the first triumvirate was created, the Roman Republic had reached its peak. Rival politicians in the Senate Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, together with the young commander Gaius Julius Caesar, created a triple alliance to achieve their own goals. The rivalry for power and ambition of all three helped keep each other in check, ensuring Rome's prosperity.
The richest citizen of Rome, Crassus was corrupt to such an extent that he forced wealthy fellow citizens to pay him for security. If the citizen paid, everything was in order, but if no money was received, the obstinate’s property was set on fire and Crassus charged a fee for his people to put out the fire. And although the motives for the emergence of these fire brigades can hardly be called noble, Crassus in fact created the first fire brigade, which in the future served the city well more than once.
Pompey and Caesar are famous commanders, thanks to whose conquests Rome significantly increased its wealth and expanded its sphere of influence. Envying the leadership talents of his comrades, Crassus organized a military campaign in Parthia.
In September '54 BC. Caesar's daughter Julia, who was Pompey's wife, died giving birth to a girl, who also died a few days later. This news created factional divisions and unrest in Rome, as many felt that the death of Julia and the child ended the family ties between Caesar and Pompey.
Crassus' campaign against Parthia was disastrous. Shortly after the death of Julia, Crassus died in the battle of Carrhae (in May 53 BC). While Crassus was alive, there was some parity in the relationship between Pompey and Caesar, but after his death, friction between the two commanders resulted in civil war. Pompey tried to get rid of his rival by legal means and ordered him to appear in Rome for the trial of the Senate, which deprived Caesar of all powers. Instead of arriving in the city and humbly appearing before the Senate, in January 49 BC. e. Caesar, returning from Gaul, crossed the Rubicon with his army and entered Rome.
He did not accept any accusations, but concentrated all his efforts on eliminating Pompey. The opponents met in Greece in 48 BC, where Caesar's numerically inferior army defeated Pompey's superior forces at the Battle of Pharsalus. Pompey himself fled to Egypt, hoping to find refuge there, but was deceived and killed. The news of Caesar's victory spread quickly - many of Pompey's former friends and allies quickly went over to the side of the winner, believing that he was supported by the gods.
Rise of the Roman Empire (27 BC)
After defeating Pompey, Julius Caesar became the most powerful man in Rome. The Senate declared him a dictator, and this actually marked the beginning of the decline of the Republic. Caesar was extremely popular among the people, and for good reason: his efforts to create a strong and stable government increased the prosperity of the city of Rome.
Many changes were carried out, the most significant of which was the reform of the calendar. A police force was created and officials were appointed to carry out land reforms, and changes were made to tax laws.
Caesar's plans included the construction of an unprecedented temple dedicated to the god Mars, a huge theater and a library based on the prototype of the Alexandrian one. He ordered the restoration of Corinth and Carthage, wanted to turn Ostia into a large port and dig a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth. Caesar was going to conquer the Dacians and Parthians, as well as avenge the defeat at Carrhae.
However, Caesar's achievements led to his death as a result of a conspiracy in 44 BC. A group of senators led by Brutus and Cassius feared that Caesar was becoming too powerful and could eventually simply abolish the Senate.
After the death of the dictator, his relative and comrade-in-arms Mark Antony joined forces with Caesar's nephew and heir Gaius Octavius Furinus and his friend Mark Aemilius Lepidus. Their combined army defeated the forces of Brutus and Cassius in the two battles of Philippi in 42 BC. Both of the dictator's killers committed suicide; soldiers and officers, except those who took a direct part in the conspiracy against Caesar, received forgiveness and an offer to join the army of the winners.
Octavius, Antony and Lepidus formed the second triumvirate of Rome. However, the members of this triumvirate turned out to be too ambitious. Lepidus was given control of Spain and Africa, which effectively neutralized him from political claims in Rome. It was decided that Octavius would rule the Roman dominions in the west, and Antony in the east.
However, Antony's love affair with the queen of Egypt, Cleopatra VII, destroyed the fragile balance that Octavius sought to maintain and led to war. The armies of Antony and Cleopatra were defeated at the Battle of Cape Actium in 31 BC. e., after which the lovers later committed suicide.
Octavius remained the only ruler of Rome. In 27 BC. e. he receives emergency powers from the Senate, the name of Octavian Augustus and becomes the first emperor of Rome. It is at this moment that the history of ancient Rome ends and the history of the Roman Empire begins.
Reign of Augustus (31 BC-14 AD)
Now Emperor Octavian Augustus carried out a military reform, retaining 28 legions out of 60, thanks to which he came to power. The rest were demobilized and settled in the colonies. Thus, 150 thousand were created. regular army. The length of service was set at sixteen years and later increased to twenty.
The active legions were stationed far from Rome and from each other - the proximity of the border directed the energy of the military outward, towards external enemies. At the same time, being far from each other, ambitious commanders did not have the opportunity to unite into a force capable of threatening the throne. Such caution of Augustus immediately after the civil war was quite understandable and characterized him as a far-sighted politician.
All provinces were divided into senatorial and imperial. In their domains, senators had civil power, but did not have military powers - the troops were only under the control of the emperor and were stationed in the regions under his control.
The republican structure of Rome became more and more a formality every year. The Senate, comitia and some other state institutions gradually lost their political significance, leaving real power in the hands of the emperor. However, formally he continued to consult with the Senate, which often voiced the emperor’s decisions as a result of its debates. This form of monarchy with republican features received the conventional name “principate.”
Augustus was one of the most talented, energetic and skillful administrators the world has ever known. The enormous work of reorganizing every branch of his vast empire created a prosperous new Roman world.
Following in the footsteps of Caesar, he earned genuine popularity by organizing games and spectacles for the people, constructing new buildings, roads and other measures for the common good. The emperor himself claimed that he restored 82 temples in one year.
Augustus was not a talented commander, but he had the common sense to admit it. And therefore, in military affairs, he relied on his faithful friend Agrippa, who had a military vocation. The most important achievement was the conquest of Egypt in 30 BC. e. Then in 20 BC. managed to return the banners and prisoners captured by the Parthians at the Battle of Carrha in 53 BC. Also during the reign of Augustus, the Danube became the border of the empire in eastern Europe, after the conquest of the Alpine tribes and the occupation of the Balkans.
Julio-Claudian Dynasty (14-69 AD)
Since Augustus and his wife Livia had no sons together, his stepson from his first marriage, Tiberius, became the emperor's heir. In Augustus's will he was the sole heir, and after the death of the emperor in 14 AD. the succession of power passed peacefully.
Tiberius
As under Augustus, the empire as a whole enjoyed peace and prosperity. Tiberius did not seek to conquer new territories, but continued to strengthen the power of Rome over the entire vast empire.
Distinguished by his stinginess, the new emperor practically stopped funding the construction of temples, roads and other structures. Nevertheless, the consequences of natural disasters or fires were eliminated using funds from the state treasury, and in such situations Tiberius was not greedy. The main result of Tiberius's reign was the strengthening of imperial power, since the principate of the reign of Augustus still existed in Tiberius's empire.
Caligula
After the death of Tiberius in 37. power passed to Caligula, who was the son of the nephew of the deceased emperor. The beginning of his reign was very promising, since the young heir was popular among the people and generous. Caligula celebrated his rise to power with a large-scale amnesty. However, an incomprehensible illness that happened to the emperor a few months later turned the man on whom Rome pinned its bright hopes into a crazy monster, making his name a household name. In the fifth year of his mad reign, in 41 AD, Caligula was killed by one of his Praetorian officers.
Claudius
Caligula was succeeded by his uncle Claudius, who was fifty years old when he came to power. Throughout his reign the empire prospered and there were virtually no complaints from the provinces. But the main achievement of Claudius's reign was the organized conquest of the south of England.
Nero
He succeeded Claudia in 54. AD his stepson Nero, distinguished by his outstanding cruelty, despotism and viciousness. On a whim, the emperor burned half the city in 64 and then tried to regain popularity among the people by lighting up its gardens with a public display of burning Christians. As a result of the Praetorian uprising in 68, Nero committed suicide, and with his death the Julio-Claudian dynasty ended.
Flavian Dynasty (69-96)
For a year after Nero's death, the struggle for the throne continued, resulting in a civil war. And only the coming to power of the new Flavian dynasty in the person of Emperor Vespasian put an end to the civil strife.
During the 9 years of his reign, the uprisings that broke out in the provinces were suppressed, and the state economy was restored.
After Vespasian's death, his own son became the heir - this was the first time that power in Rome passed from father to son. The reign was short, and the younger brother Domitian, who replaced him after his death, was not distinguished by any special virtues and died as a result of a conspiracy.
Antonina (90-180)
After his death, the Senate proclaimed Nerva emperor, who ruled for only two years, but gave Rome one of the best rulers - the outstanding commander Ulpius Trajan. Under him, the Roman Empire reached its maximum size. Expanding the borders of the empire, Trajan wanted to move the nomadic barbarian tribes as far as possible from Rome. Three subsequent emperors - Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius - acted for the benefit of Rome and made the 2nd century AD. the best era of the empire.
Severan Dynasty (193-235)
The son of Marcus Aurelius, Commodus, did not have the virtues of his father and his predecessors, but he had many vices. As a result of a conspiracy, he was strangled in 192, and the empire again entered a period of interregnum.
In 193, a new Severan dynasty came to power. During the reign of Carcalla, the second emperor of this dynasty, the inhabitants of all provinces received the right to Roman citizenship. All the emperors of the dynasty (except for the founder Septimius Severus) died a violent death.
Crisis of the 3rd century
From 235 By 284, the empire was experiencing a crisis of state power, which resulted in a period of instability, economic decline and the temporary loss of some territories. From 235 to 268g. 29 emperors claimed the throne, of whom only one died a natural death. Only with the proclamation of Emperor Diocletian in 284 did the period of upheaval end.
Diocletian and the Tetrarchy
It was under Diocletian that the principate finally ceased to exist, giving way to the dominant - the unlimited power of the emperor. During his reign, a number of reforms were carried out, in particular the formal division of the empire, first into two and then into four regions, each of which was ruled by its own “tetrarch”. Although the tetrarchy lasted only until 313, it was the original idea of \u200b\u200bthe division into west and east that led to the future division into two independent empires.
Constantine I and the decline of the empire
By 324, Constantine became the sole ruler of the empire, under whom Christianity acquired the status of a state religion. The capital is transferred from Rome to Constantinople, built on the site of the ancient Greek city of Byzantium. After his death, the process of decline of the empire becomes irreversible - civil strife and the invasion of barbarians gradually led to the decline of the once most powerful empire in the world. Theodosius I can be considered the last autocratic ruler of the Roman world, but he remained so for only about a year. In 395 power passes to his sons. The division into Western and Eastern empires becomes final.
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The history of Rome from the founding of the city to the present day is replete with various events in political, social and religious life that rightfully made it “Eternal”. Rome, located on seven hills, is one of the oldest cities in the world. In no country is there such a thing that an entire state is located on the territory of a city, and it is also the center of Catholic life.
To visit Italy and not visit the capital means not to have visited Italy. But to view the sights you need to know at least in general terms the history of this unique city.
Founding of Rome
The traditional founding date of the city is April 21, 753 BC. e. But even before this time there were tribal settlements on the banks of the Tiber River. It was here that two brothers Romulus and Remus grew up, whose father was the ruler of the local lands. The brothers decided to found a colony on the banks of the river, but during their activities a dispute began over where to found the city. Romulus outlined the place, indicating that there would be a settlement here. According to one version of historians, Romulus said that anyone who wanted to enter his city would be killed. Rem laughed and stepped over the border marked by his brother. Romulus considered this sacrilege and killed Remus and alone founded a fortified settlement. Romulus, as the founder of Rome, became its first king.
There were a total of seven kings in the ancient period. During their activity, Rome grew on the Palatine Hill: roads were laid connecting it with other settlements, temples were rebuilt, markets were equipped, and fortifications were built along the hills, which have survived to this day.
Among the buildings there were many sanctuaries and other sacred buildings, which indicates the high religiosity of the inhabitants of the urban settlement.
The first kings ruled cruelly, which resulted in discontent among the inhabitants and the proclamation of a republican system. Along with the proclamation of the republic, the population was immediately divided into the privileged class and the plebeians. Much of the history of Rome during this period is associated with the struggle of the plebeians for their rights.
The ancient period is marked by the activities of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Gnaeus Pompey, Caesar and Augustus. All settlements around Rome were annexed to the city, expanding its borders. All neighboring lands were annexed by force and of good will to the Roman Empire, whose borders were constantly growing. Almost the entire Mediterranean was under the control of Rome.
Under Augustus, Rome was thoroughly fortified with ditches and walls, especially between the hills.
During the period of the democratic republic, Rome began to look more and more like a city:
- the street layout was outlined;
- houses and shops were being built.
Rich people built large houses, and gradually forced out the common people to settle higher in the hills. This is how houses with several small apartments appeared. The streets were very narrow, as the land was used to the maximum and was actively developed. August moved the construction of new buildings beyond the fortress walls and ditches, increased the number of water pipes and improved sewerage. The construction of thermal baths (baths), theaters and porticos dates back to the time of his reign.
Despite the fact that Augustus was a military leader, it was he who is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, although formally he was called the first among the senators. But in fact, the republican system gradually turned into a monarchical one.
Caligula and Claudius continued to expand Rome.
During the reign of Emperor Nero, the center of Rome burned completely. The ruler wanted to take advantage of this and build a golden palace, but the idea was not realized. Troubles began. And only with the coming to power of Vespasian, Rome began to revive. At this time, the Colosseum was built on the site of the golden house planned by Nero.
The next rulers, Titus and Trajan, continued to develop the city by building squares and baths. Under Trajan, the empire expanded its borders even further, subjugating the Parthian state. But after his death, she was forced to change offensive tactics to defensive ones. The country was subjected to increasingly frequent raids by barbarian tribes, and Roman troops suffered significant losses.
The consolidation of the empire was facilitated by the fact that from the 4th century Christianity became the main religion. The foreign policy power of the Roman Empire was lost, but the city became the capital of the Christian world.
During the reign of the first Christian emperor Constantine, the construction of two most important church buildings took place - St. Peter's Cathedral and St. Paul's Basilica.
History of the city during the Middle Ages and Modern times
The period of destruction of the city began in the 4th century. It was subject to raids by Vandals and passed from hand to hand of various kings. Rome ceased to be the capital; it was moved to Constantinople. From the 6th to the 8th centuries, power in the city passed to local bishops and popes. All life began to revolve around St. Peter's Basilica. The Vatican finally stood out as the papal residence. The city was in decline until Pope Stephen II decided, with the help of the king of the Franks, to proclaim himself God's messenger in the lands around Rome. As a result of the agreement between the king and the pope, the Holy Roman Empire was proclaimed. The Frankish king became emperor, and Rome and the surrounding areas came under papal jurisdiction. The bishops launched a vigorous activity to build churches and cathedrals, fountains and fancy squares.
The temporal power of the Pope was ended in 1798, when French troops occupied the city and the Roman Empire was proclaimed. Finding themselves in a city filled with works of art, the French began to massively export all the most valuable things they could bring out.
Rome passed from the French to the Neapolitans, then again to the power of the Pope, and only Napoleon ended his power by proclaiming his son King of Rome.
The French did a lot for the city in terms of improvement, but Napoleon was defeated and Pope Pius VII did not fail to take advantage of this to again proclaim the papal state. It was possible to return to the republican system only after the revolution of 1848.
Until 1870, Rome constantly passed from the hands of the Pope to the hands of the French and back again. And only in the above-mentioned year the city changed its status to the capital of the Italian kingdom. The Pope became the head of the Catholic Church.
After this, all significant institutions were moved to the city, the royal court moved, and a project for a new part of the city was developed due to the large influx of residents. A real boom began in construction, but more secular and administrative buildings were built than church buildings. The city was built up at tremendous speed. All the previously empty hills were inhabited, and the Tiber turned out to be chained with stone buildings. Scientists even panicked, fearing that they would destroy all the ancient buildings.
The period of Mussolini's reign was marked by pompous buildings and the expansion of boulevards.
During World War II, Rome, although it was occupied by the Nazis, was not destroyed, unlike other European cities. In the post-war period, the capital of Italy turned into a center of the film industry and tourism. Today it is a beautiful city that has managed to preserve numerous art monuments that many tourists are so eager to see.
Current page: 1 (book has 146 pages in total)
Titus Livy
History of Rome from the founding of the City
Book I
The arrival of Aeneas in Italy and his deeds (1–2). Reign of Ascania in Alba, and then Silviev (3). Birth of Romulus and Remus (4). Founding of Rome (5–7). Establishment of the Senate (8). War with the Sabines (9-13). Division of the people into curiae (13). Victory over the Fidenians and Veientians (14–15). Apotheosis of Romulus (16). Religious institutions of Numa Pompilius (17–21). Tullus Hostilius devastated the Alban region; battle of Horatii and Curiatii (22–26). Treason and execution of Metiya Fufetia (27–28). Destruction of Alba (29). Victory over the Sabines (30). Death of Tullus (31). Ancus Marcius defeated the Latins and founded Ostia (32–33). Arrival in Rome Lucumon (34). Accession of Tarquin the Ancient; his victories and buildings (35–38). Miracle over Servius Tullius (39). The murder of Tarquinius and the accession of Servius Tullius (40–41). Victory over the Veientes; dividing the people into categories; construction of the temple of Diana (42–45). Death of Servius Tullius (46–48). Accession of Tarquin the Proud; murder of Turnus Gerdonius (49–52). War with the Volscians; sack of Gabii (53–54). Structures on the Capitol (55–56). Siege of Ardea; death of Lucretia and expulsion of the kings (57–60).
Preface
Whether it will be worth the effort if I write the history of the Roman people from the founding of the city, I don’t know for sure, and even if I knew, I would not dare to say: the fact is that this enterprise, as I see, is both old and tried by many, Moreover, new writers constantly appearing think either to introduce something new from the factual side, or to surpass the harsh antiquity with the art of presentation. Be that as it may, it will still be pleasant for me, to the best of my ability, to serve to perpetuate the deeds of the first people on earth; and if my name remains in the shadows in such a crowd of writers, then I will begin to console myself with the glory and greatness of my rivals. In addition, this is a matter of great difficulty, since it is necessary to reproduce events over more than seven hundred years, and, moreover, from the life of a state that began small and grew to the point that its size becomes a burden to it; finally, most readers will undoubtedly take little pleasure in the history of the origin of the city and the events surrounding it; After all, they are in a hurry to get acquainted with that recent period when the forces of an overly powerful people have long been destroying themselves. I will also be rewarded by the fact that I will turn away from the disasters we have been experiencing for so many years, at least for that time while with all the forces of my soul I am occupied with reproducing those ancient events; here I will not experience any anxiety, which, even if it is not able to deviate the writer’s mind from the truth, can still bother him. I do not intend to either affirm or refute the news of the events that preceded the founding, or rather, the thought of the founding of the city; all of them are more embellished with poetic inventions than based on undoubted historical monuments: antiquity is allowed to sanctify the beginning of cities, mixing the divine with the human. And if any people should be allowed to sanctify their origin and attribute it to the gods, then the Roman people acquired this right with their military valor, and the peoples who endure its power should just as resignedly endure it when they call their ancestor and parent the founder of their city not none other than Mars. I don’t, of course, attach much importance to how this and similar news will be viewed and assessed; for me it is important that everyone carefully traces what life was like, what morals, what people and by what means in peace and war they acquired and increased the power of the state; let him then trace how morality, with the gradual decline of order, began to fluctuate, how it then began to decline more and more and finally collapsed; Thus, we have reached the present situation where we can no longer tolerate either vices or remedies against them. This is the moral benefit and fruitfulness of studying history, that you can contemplate examples of all kinds of events as if on a brilliant monument, from here you can take for yourself and for your state examples worthy of imitation, you will immediately find both a shameful beginning and a shameful end – what to avoid.
However, either my love for the work undertaken is deceiving me, or there really has never been a state greater, more moral, richer in good examples; a state into which greed and luxury would have penetrated so late, and where poverty and abstinence would have been held in such great esteem longer. For the fewer funds there were, the less they chased after them; Only recently did wealth give rise to greed, and abundance in pleasures gave rise to the passion to ruin everything with luxury and debauchery.
But let at least the beginning of such a great undertaking be free from complaints, which even then will not be pleasant when they, perhaps, cannot be avoided. If we, as poets, were in the habit of doing this, we would be much more willing to begin with good omens, with vows and prayers to the gods and goddesses, so that they would grant happy success to the one who has begun such a great undertaking.
1
. First of all, it is quite well known that the capture of Troy was followed by a fierce reprisal against all the Trojans; only to two, Aeneas and Antenor 1
The text is printed according to the edition: Titus Livy. Roman history from the founding of the City. Translation from Latin edited by P. Adrianov. In 6 volumes. M., Printing house of E. Gerbek, 1897 (2nd ed. 1901).
When compiling the notes, we used the editor's comments to the first and second editions of the translation in Russian, as well as comments to the edition: Titus Livy. History of Rome from the founding of the City. In 3 volumes. M., Science, 1989–1993. Notes to this publication marked “Note. ed.”, prepared by O. A. Koroleva, who also brought the comments of the editor of the first edition into line with the spelling and stylistic norms of modern word usage.
...only to two, Aeneas and Antenor...– Aeneas is a hero of the Trojan War, in Roman mythology the son of Anchises and Venus, a relative of the Trojan king Priam. Antenor is Priam’s advisor, one of the wise Trojan elders who showed hospitality to Menelaus and Odysseus when they came to Troy demanding the handing over of Helen.
The Achaeans did not at all apply the laws of war due to ancient hospitality and due to the fact that they constantly advised making peace and returning Helen. Then, after various adventures, Antenor arrived in the most remote bay of the Adriatic Sea with a handful of Enetes, who were expelled from Paphlagonia for rebellion and, having lost King Pilemenes at Troy, were looking for a leader and a place to settle; Having driven out the Euganeans, who lived between the sea and the Alps, the Aenetes and Trojans took possession of this land. The place where they landed for the first time is called Troy, and from there the region bears the name Trojan; The whole people are called Veneti.
Aeneas, who fled from his fatherland as a result of the same misfortune, but destined by fate for greater undertakings, first arrived in Macedonia, from there, looking for a place to settle, he was brought to Sicily, and from Sicily he arrived with his ships to the Laurentian region. And this place is also called Troy. Coming out here, the Trojans, like people who, after almost endless wandering, had nothing left except ships and weapons, captured the cattle that were in the fields; then King Latin and the natives, who then owned those places, ran with weapons in their hands from the city and from the fields to repel the attack of the aliens. There are two legends about what followed: according to one, Latinus, having lost the battle, made peace with Aeneas, and then became related to him; in another way, when both armies stood ready for battle and, before the signal was given, Latinus stepped out of the crowd of elders and summoned the leader of the aliens for negotiations. Then he asked what kind of people they were, where they came from and on what occasion they left home, and why they landed in the Laurentian region; Having heard that the people are Trojans, and their leader is Aeneas, the son of Anchises and Venus, that they fled from their homeland after the burning of their native city and are looking for a place to settle and found a new city, - Latinus, marveling at the nobility of the people and the leader and their readiness to make peace or fight, sealed future friendship with a handshake. The chiefs then made a treaty, and the troops greeted each other; Aeneas became the guest of Latinus, and then before the Penates 2
...in front of the penates...– Penates are guardian deities, whose cult is associated with the deification of ancestors. Household, or family, penates are the custodians of the home and food supplies. Public, or state, penates were considered one of the main shrines of Rome. In solemn vows they were named together with Jupiter. Their figurines, brought by Aeneas from Troy, were first in Lavinia, and then in Rome, in the Temple of Vesta. – Note edit.
Latinus sealed the political alliance with his family by marrying his daughter to Aeneas. This circumstance finally strengthened the hope of the Trojans that their wanderings had finally ended and they had found a permanent and lasting place to settle. They found a city, and Aeneas named it Lavinium after his wife. A little later, the young couple had a son, whom his parents named Askanius.
2 . The natives and Trojans were then attacked simultaneously. The king of the Rutulians, Turnus, to whom Lavinia had been betrothed before Aeneas' arrival, offended by the stranger's preference, attacked Aeneas and Latinus. Both troops emerged from the battle with damage: the Rutuli were defeated, and the winners - the natives and the Trojans - lost their leader Latinus. Then Turnus and the Rutuli, not trusting their own strength, sought protection from the Etruscans, known for their power, and their king Mezentius, who commanded Tsera, a strong city at that time. From the very beginning he was dissatisfied with the emergence of the new city; then, believing that the forces of the Trojans were growing much faster than the safety of their neighbors allowed, he willingly combined his weapons with those of the Rutuli.
Aeneas, wishing, in view of such a formidable war, to attract the hearts of the aborigines, called both peoples Latins, so that everyone would have not only the same laws, but also the same name. And since then, the natives were not inferior to the Trojans in zeal and devotion to King Aeneas. Hoping for the courage of the two peoples, who from day to day were drawing closer and closer to each other, Aeneas led his troops into the field, although the glory of the power of Etruria spread not only across the land, but also across the sea, along all of Italy - from the Alps to the Strait of Sicily, and although he had the opportunity to defend himself within the walls. The ensuing battle was successful for the Latins, but for Aeneas it was also the last feat. He was buried near the Numik River; I don’t know what to call Aeneas, but his name is Jupiter the Ancestor 3
...I don’t know what to call Aeneas, but his name is Jupiter the Ancestor. – Jupiter Ancestor – lat. Iuppiter Indians. This probably means that the cult of Aeneas merged with the cult of the ancestor god.
3
. Aeneas's son, Ascanius, had not yet reached the age to assume power, but the kingdom remained untouched until he matured; the Latin state, the kingdom of his grandfather and father, protected by a woman, survived; Lavinia was such a capable woman! I will not argue (and who would dare to speak with complete confidence about such an ancient event!) whether it was that Ascanius or another, older one, born of Creusa during the existence of Ilion, who accompanied his father in flight - in a word, the one whom under the name Yula, the Yuliev clan considers its ancestor 4
...the one whom the Yuliev family considers to be their ancestor under the name Yula. – Julia is a noble Roman family. Julia traced themselves to Yulus, the mythical son of Aeneas. The first historical person belonging to this family is Gaius Julius Yul, consul of 489 BC. e. – Note edit.
This Ascanius - no matter where and from whatever mother he was born (in any case, it is certain that he was the son of Aeneas) - due to the surplus in the population, left the city of his mother (or stepmother), which was flourishing at that time, and he himself founded at the foot of the Alban Mountain a new city was named Alba Longa, as it stretched along the mountain ridge 5
...a new city, which he called Alba Longa, as it stretched along the mountain ridge.– Alba Longa means “Long Alba”; 25–30 km from Rome. – Note. ed.
Between the founding of Lavinium and the establishment of the colony 6
...breeding a colony... – Colonies were the city-settlements brought by the Romans to different regions of Italy. They were divided into colonies of Roman citizens and colonies of Latin law. The latter became independent cities - their settlers lost their previous citizenship (Roman or other cities of Latium) and became citizens of the newly founded settlements. The removal of colonies to cities captured from the enemy served to strengthen the positions of Rome. – Note edit.
Almost thirty years passed in Albu Longa, nevertheless, the power of the state, especially after the defeat of the Etruscans, increased to the point that neither after the death of Aeneas, nor during the reign of a woman, nor even in the first years of the reign of the young man, neither Mezentius with the Etruscans, nor any other the neighbors did not dare raise their weapons. According to the peace treaty, the Albula River, now called the Tiber, became the border between the Etruscans and the Latins.
Then the son of Ascanius Silvius reigned 7
Then the son of Ascanius Silvius reigned...– Silvius – from lat. silva- forest. Ancient Roman writers attributed the founding of Rome either to Aeneas himself or to Romulus, calling the latter his grandson. But since the founding of Rome was dated to 400 or even 432 after the destruction of Troy, the resulting gap was too large; To smooth out this contradiction, around the time of Sulla, a list of Alban kings was compiled by Livy.
For some reason, born in the forest. He had a son, Aeneas Silvius, and he had a son, Latinus Silvius. He established several colonies, which were called "Ancient Latins". Then all the kings of Alba retained the nickname Silvius. Latinus had a son Alba, Alba had Atis, Atis had Capis, Capis had Capetus, Capetus had Tiberinus, who drowned while swimming across Albula, which later received the famous name Tiber, then Agrippa, the son of Tiberinus, reigned, after Arippus - Romulus Silvius, who took over power from his father; he was struck by lightning; he was directly succeeded by Aventine; he was buried on the hill that received his name and now forms part of Rome, then Proca reigned. He had sons Numitor and Amulius. The ancient kingdom of the Sylvians was bequeathed to Numitor as the eldest son. But the power turned out to be higher than the will of the father and the right of seniority: having driven out his brother, Amulius reigned; to one crime he added another, killing his brother’s son; He deprived his brother’s daughter, Rhea Silvia, of hope for offspring, making her a vestal under the guise of honor and thus obliging her to remain a virgin forever.
4
. But, I believe, such a strong city and state, second only to the power of the gods, owed its emergence to the will of fate. When the raped Vestal Virgin gave birth to twins, she declared the father of this unknown offspring to be Mars, either because she believed it, or because she considered it more honorable to make God the culprit of her crime. However, neither gods nor people were able to protect her and the children from the cruelty of the king. 8
However, neither gods nor people were able to protect her and the children from the cruelty of the king.... - The right to choose and punish a vestal virgin belongs to the king as the high priest.
: the priestess in chains was thrown into prison, and the children were ordered to be thrown into the river. But by the will of fate, the Tiber overflowed its banks and formed swamps, so that nowhere could one approach its real bed; At the same time, the messengers hoped that the children would drown, even in standing water. So, considering themselves to have fulfilled the king’s command, they threw the children into the nearest puddle, where the Ruminal fig tree is now located. 9
...where is the Ruminal fig tree now located... – Ruminal fig tree (lat. rumis- “nipple”), according to the instructions of the ancient grammarian Festus, so named because under her the she-wolf breastfed Romulus and Remus. This fig tree was located on that part of the Palatine Hill, which is called Kermal and lies opposite the Capitol. In the time of Titus Livy it was no longer there; one must, therefore, assume that Livy expressed himself inaccurately or confused this fig tree with another, which grew on the Comitia and existed even under Pliny the Elder. The name of this Romulus fig tree is based on a mixture of the name of the goddess Rumina, to whom it was dedicated, with the name of Romulus.
(they say that she was called Romulus). In those places there was then a vast wasteland. There is a legend that when the floating trough in which the boys were thrown out remained in a dry place after the water subsided, a thirsty she-wolf, coming from the surrounding mountains, headed towards the crying of the children. She fell to them with such meekness and breastfed them that the chief royal shepherd, called, according to legend, Faustulus, found her licking the children. The latter brought them home and gave them to his wife Larentia to raise. Some believe that Larencia was named among the shepherds for her debauchery lupa, and this served as the basis for an amazing fairy tale 10
... Larencia was called lupa among the shepherds for her debauchery, and this served as the basis for an amazing fairy tale. – Akka Larencia, mother of the Lares, under the name Lupa or Luperca she was revered as the teacher of the patron gods of the Roman state - Picus and Faun; In her honor, the Larentalia holiday was established. Later she was turned into a historical figure as the nurse of Romulus and Remus, and since the word lupa has a reprehensible meaning - “slut”, then this nurse began to be considered a public woman. The tale of the she-wolf is believed to be based on the same similarity in the name of the goddess Lupa with the Latin name for she-wolf ( lupa).
This is how they were born and this is how they were raised; when they grew up, then, without remaining idle in the shepherd’s hut or near the herds, they wandered through the forests hunting. Having strengthened themselves in body and spirit amid such activities, they not only pursued animals, but also attacked robbers laden with booty, divided the loot among the shepherds, and from this day on, the enlarged squad was engaged in both business and jokes.
5
. Already at that time there was, according to legend, the festival of Lupercalia, which is still celebrated today. 11
...festival of Lupercalia... - Lupercalia (from lat. lupus- “wolf”) is an ancient Roman festival of purification and fertility, celebrated on February 15 in honor of the god of fertility Faun Lupercus.
On Mount Palatine, first named after the Arcadian city of Pallantia 12
...city of Pallantia... – Pallantium is an ancient city west of Tegea; considered the birthplace of Evander.
Pallantean, and then Palatine. There Evander, an Arcadian by birth, who had lived in those places for many years before, established a festival taken from Arcadia, which consisted of naked young men 13
...naked youths... - The young men were covered only with goatskin, like the image of Pan located in the temple at the foot of the Palatine Hill.
They ran around, accompanying the worship of Pan Lyceum with jokes and fun 14
...veneration of Pan Lyceum... - Pan is called Lyceum on behalf of Mount Lyceum, which lay near Pallantium; Pan was born there and his temple was there.
Later renamed by the Romans to Inuya. This holiday became famous; and so, while they were indulging in games, the robbers, irritated by the loss of their booty, ambushed them; Romulus fought back, and they captured Remus, immediately presented him to King Amulius, and they themselves began to accuse him. The main accusation was that the brothers attacked the fields of Numitor and, with a gang of young men, stole cattle from there, like enemies. As a result, Remus was handed over to Numitor for punishment.
From the very beginning, Favstul suspected that he was raising royal children; he knew that they were thrown out by order of the king; the time when he found them also coincided; but, not being completely convinced, he did not want to reveal this, unless opportunity presented itself or necessity forced it. The need arose earlier. And so, under the influence of fear, he reveals everything to Romulus. By chance, Numitor, while keeping Remus in custody and hearing about the twin brothers, remembered his grandchildren, comparing their age and the character of the captive, who did not at all resemble a slave. Through questioning he came to the same result and almost recognized Rem. Thus, intrigues are forged for the king from all sides. Romulus, not considering it possible to act with open force, attacks the king not with a gang of young men, but ordering each shepherd on his way to appear at a certain time near the palace, and from the side of Numitor’s dwelling Remus comes to the aid, having prepared another detachment. So they kill the king.
6 . Numitor, at the beginning of the turmoil, declaring that enemies had invaded the city and attacked the palace, recalled the Alban youth to defend the fortress; when he saw that the brothers, having killed the king, were coming to him with greetings, he immediately convened a meeting, exposed his brother’s crime against him, pointed out the origin of his grandchildren - how they were born, how they were raised, how they were recognized, then - how the tyrant was killed and announces that he is the culprit. The young men, marching harmoniously into the middle of the meeting, greeted their grandfather as king, and the subsequent unanimous exclamations of the crowd secured his royal name and power.
Having thus given the Albanian kingdom to Numitor, Romulus and Remus wished to found a city in the places where they had been thrown out and raised. In addition, there was a surplus in the Albanian and Latin population; shepherds joined them, and all this together, naturally, gave hope that both Alba and Lavinium would be small in comparison with the city that they were going to found. But then this was reflected in the harmful influence of the grandfather’s evil - the passion for royal power, the consequence of which was a shameful battle that arose due to a rather unimportant circumstance. Since the brothers were twins and it was impossible to resolve matters on the basis of respect for seniority, Romulus chose the Palatine, and Remus - the Aventine hill for fortune telling. 15
...then Romulus chooses the Palatine, and Remus chooses the Aventine hill for fortune telling... - The Augur (here Romulus himself) poses certain questions to which the gods must answer with certain signs. The custom of asking the will of the gods before taking power or before starting any important enterprise remained subsequently. The augurs received a collegial structure under King Numa (chapter 18).
So that the gods, the patrons of those places, indicate with signs who to give a name to the new city and who to rule it.
7
. They say that the sign - six kites - appeared earlier to Remus, and it was already announced when a double number appeared to Romulus; and the surrounding crowd greeted both as kings: some demanded royal power for their leader, based on the time of the appearance of the birds, others on their number. Violence arose, and the irritation caused by it led to a massacre, during which Rem was killed in the crowd. A more widespread legend, however, is that Remus, laughing at his brother, jumped over the new walls; Romulus, enraged by this, killed him, saying: “So it will be with anyone who jumps over my walls.” Thus, Romulus alone took possession of the kingdom, and the founded city was named after the founder 16
...Romulus alone took possession of the kingdom, and the founded city was named after the founder. – Titus Livius leaves open the question of whether the dispute took place before or after the founding of Rome. However, it is etymologically impossible to produce Roma from Romulus; from the name Romulus it would work out Romula, but since the diminutive form of the name could have a bad meaning for the future state, it was changed in Roma.
First of all, he fortified the Palatine Hill, on which he himself grew up. He established sacred rites for all the gods according to the Albanian ritual, and for Hercules - according to the Greek, as was prescribed by Evander. They say that Hercules, having killed Geryon, drove his amazingly beautiful bulls to these places and, having swam after the herd across the Tiber, lay down in a meadow to allow the cattle to rest and feed on good grass, and to recover from fatigue from the road. When, heavy with food and wine, he fell asleep, a shepherd named Kak lived in those places. 17
...a shepherd named How... - Like the poets it is a monster, a half-beast; descendant of Vulcan. It is very likely that the Italic Greeks identified his name with the adj. κακός (“evil”), and in this sense he was conveniently contrasted with the “good man” (Evander). Kak lived, according to some sources, on the Palatine, where the “Kak’s staircase” was later shown ( Scalae Caci), leading to the circus, others - to the Aventine.
Of terrible strength, captivated by the beauty of the bulls, he decided to appropriate them for himself as prey; but realizing that if he directly drives the cattle into the cave, then the tracks themselves will lead the owner there when he begins to look for the bulls, just as he dragged the best of them there by the tail. Waking up at dawn, Hercules looked around the herd and, seeing that part of it was missing, headed to the nearest cave to see if the tracks led there; seeing, however, that they were all directed out of the cave and were not going anywhere further, confused and at a loss, he drove the herd out of this evil place. But when some of the cows, leaving and yearning for those who remained, began to moo, as is usually the case, the answering mooing of those locked in the cave forced Hercules to return. How he tried to block his access to the cave by force, but, struck by a club, he fell, in vain calling for help to the shepherds.
Evander, who had fled from the Peloponnese, then reigned in these places, relying more on his moral superiority than on power; this husband was respected for his amazing writing 18
...This husband was respected for his amazing writing... - That is, the Latin alphabet, which is attributed to Greek origin (from Evander); it was brought to Latium, probably through Cumae.
Unknown to rude people, and even more due to the belief in the divine power of his mother Carmenta 19
...in the divine power of his mother Carmenta...– Carmenta (from lat. carmen- “song”, “prophecy”) - an ancient Roman deity, later identified with the mother or wife of Evander. She was revered as a prophetess and obstetrician. Besides the ancient altar in the Bull Market, a small gate temple was dedicated to her in her honor at the foot of the Capitol; The Carmentalia festival was held in her honor. – Note edit.
The inhabitants of Italy bowed before the prophecies of which even before the arrival of the Sibyl there 20
...even before the Sibyl arrived there. – The Sibyl arrived in Italy, according to legend, after the destruction of Troy.
This Evander was alarmed by the bustle of the shepherds, running in fear around the stranger, who was clearly guilty of murder. Having learned about the crime and the reason for it and seeing that the height and entire appearance of this man was much larger and more impressive than that of a mortal, he asked what kind of person he was. Hearing his name, his father and fatherland, he said: “Hail to you, Hercules, son of Jupiter! My mother, a truthful interpreter of the will of the gods, predicted that you will increase the number of celestials and that an altar will be dedicated to you here and the once most powerful people on earth will call it the Greatest 21
...an altar will be dedicated to you here and the once most powerful people on earth will call him the Greatest... - Altar of Hercules - Ara maxima– together with the chapel, was located at the entrance to the circus at the Bull Market, so named because, according to legend, Hercules stopped here with his bulls. Treaties were concluded at his altar; a tenth of the acquired goods was given to him as a gift.
And worship him according to the custom established by you!” Giving his right hand, Hercules said that he accepted the prophecy and was ready to fulfill the will of fate by founding and dedicating the altar. Here, for the first time, a cow chosen from the herd was sacrificed to Hercules; The Poticians and Pinarii were invited to participate in the service and feast - as the clans that then enjoyed the greatest honor in those places. It happened by chance that the Poticii arrived on time and the entrails were offered to them, while the Pinarii arrived in time for the rest of the feast when the entrails had already been eaten. Hence the custom has been preserved that, as long as the Pinarius family existed, they did not eat the entrails of festive sacrifices. Taught by Evandro 22
Taught by Evander... - The sacrifice was to be brought bare-headed, the sacrificial treat was to be eaten while sitting, and women were not allowed to approach it; all this, according to some sources, was established by Evander from the words of Hercules, according to others - by Hercules himself.
The potitias presided over these sacred rites for many centuries, until their line disappeared due to the fact that this sacred service of theirs was entrusted to public slaves. These are the only sacred rites that Romulus adopted from strangers, even then an admirer of the immortality acquired by valor, to which his own fate led him.
8
. When the worship of God was properly organized, he convened a meeting and gave laws to the crowd, since nothing else could unite it into one people. Believing, however, that the laws will only be respected by the villagers if the external signs of power inspire them to respect himself, he elevated himself in their eyes by the general situation and, most importantly, got himself twelve lictors 23
...twelve lictors. – Lictors are servants of senior officials. They combined the functions of bodyguards, executioners, etc. The number of lictors depended on the rank of the official. – Note edit.
Some believe that he chose this number in accordance with the number of birds that predicted royal power for him; I am inclined to the opinion of those who think that both the ministers of this kind and their number were borrowed from their Etruscan neighbors, from where both the curule chair and the toga praetexta were taken 24
...where did the curule chair and the toga of the praetext come from... – The curule chair and the toga praetexta are signs of royal power, borrowed from the Etruscans. The curule chair is a portable seat made of ivory, the toga praetexta is a toga bordered with a purple stripe. – Note edit.
; and among the Etruscans it was established this way, because among them twelve tribes jointly elected a king and each tribe gave one lictor.
Meanwhile, with the annexation of more and more new places, the fortifications of the city grew; but they were built more in anticipation of future population growth than in accordance with what was then. And then, so that the big city would not remain empty, a shelter was opened to increase the population, which is located behind the fence, if you go down from the Capitol 25
...to increase the population, a shelter was opened, which is located behind the fence, if you go down from the Capitol... - In the hollow located between the two peaks of the Capitol, at that time covered with forest, there was a temple of the god Veiovis, who protected and cleansed slaves, debtors and criminals who fled to him. Similar shelters existed in other places in Italy.
And it's called " inter duos lucos" Romulus took advantage of the old custom of the founders of cities, who, attracting a crowd of dark and low origins, later invented that their people were born from the earth. Every rabble from neighboring tribes, without distinction, free and slaves, who wanted a change in their situation, ran there, and this was the basis of the greatness created. When there was no longer a shortage of people, he established a council, electing one hundred elders, either because he considered this number sufficient, or because there were only one hundred people who could be chosen as “fathers.” They were called “fathers”, of course, due to the honor they enjoyed, while their children received the name “patricians” 26
...name "patrician". – Patricians, or fathers ( patres), were the heads of “surnames” - large patriarchal families that made up the clan. From their number the Senate was originally composed; the words “fathers” and “senators” in the books of Livy are often equivalent.
9 . Rome had already become so strong that it could measure its strength with any of the neighboring states; but in the absence of women, this power could last only a human century, since they had no hope of procreation at home, and there was no marriage with their neighbors. And so, on the advice of the fathers, Romulus sent envoys to the neighboring tribes to ask for an alliance and a treaty that would provide the new people with the right to marry. “Cities,” they said, “like everything else, arise from nothingness; then those who are helped by their valor and the gods acquire great power and a great name. We know enough that the gods also helped the rise of Rome, and there will be no shortage of valor. So, you - people - do not hesitate to enter into a blood relationship with people! Nowhere were the ambassadors listened to cordially - their neighbors despised them so much and at the same time they feared for themselves and their descendants in view of the fact that such a power was growing among them. The majority rejected them, asking why not open refuges for women as well - that would be just the right marriage!
This greatly offended the Roman youth, and things clearly began to move toward violence. In order to choose the time and place for this, Romulus, hiding his grief, deliberately starts ceremonial games in honor of Neptune Equestrian and calls them Consualia 27
...starts ceremonial games in honor of Neptune Equestrian and calls them Consualia. - The name of God, according to the name of the festival, was Cons; he was the patron of agriculture; his altar was located at the end of the circus and remained covered up all year; it was torn off only three times a year, mainly on the days of Consularia - August 21 and December 15.
Then he orders the announcement of the upcoming spectacle to the neighbors and, in order to give it shine and interest, he makes the most luxurious preparations for the games that were only known and possible at that time. Many people came together who also wanted to look at the new city, mainly neighbors: residents of Tsenina, Crustumeria, Antemna; All the Sabine people came with their wives and children. Warmly invited to their homes, having become acquainted with the position of the city, its walls and numerous buildings, they are amazed that the power of the Romans has grown in such a short time. When the time for the games arrived and everyone’s eyes were turned there with intense attention, according to the agreement, an attack occurred: at this sign, Roman youths rush in different directions to kidnap the girls. For the most part they grabbed whatever they came across; but some, distinguished by their beauty and destined for the most important of the fathers, were brought into their homes by commoners who were entrusted with this task. They say that one girl, who far surpassed everyone else in beauty and figure, was captured by a gang of a certain Thalassius, and when many asked who they were taking her to, they shouted “Thalassius!” many times to avoid insulting her; hence this exclamation came into use at weddings 28
...hence this exclamation came into use at weddings. - “Thalassia!” shouted to the bride as she entered the groom's house; this is the name of one of the participants in the abduction of the Sabine women.
As a result of the panic that arose from here, the games were upset, and the sad parents of the girls fled, complaining about the violation of the law of hospitality and calling on God, to whose solemn games they had come, having been godlessly and treacherously deceived. And the abducted were also in despair and no less indignant. But Romulus himself walked around them and explained that this happened as a result of the pride of their parents, who refused their neighbors a marriage contract; nevertheless, they, having become legal spouses, will share in property, civil rights and, what is most dear to people, will have legitimate children; let them only soften their anger and give their hearts to those to whom fate gave their bodies. Often, out of resentment, favor arises over time, and they will acquire better husbands for themselves because each, for his part, to the best of his ability, will try, having fulfilled the duties of a spouse, to reward them for their longing for their parents and homeland. This was accompanied by the affectionate speeches of husbands who justified their actions with passionate love, and for women this is the most effective means.
10 . Already the hearts of the abducted were completely softened, and meanwhile their parents, in mourning clothes, tearfully complaining, worried the communities; expressing their indignation, they did not limit themselves to their borders, but flocked themselves and sent embassies from everywhere to the Sabine king Titus Tatius, since his name was famous within those borders. Among those offended were the inhabitants of Tsenina, Crustumeria and Antemnu; Considering Titus Tatius and the Sabines too slow, these three peoples began to jointly prepare for war; but the extremely irritated Cenicians recognized the inhabitants of Crustumeria and Antemnu as not being energetic enough, and so they alone attacked the Roman borders. But Romulus and his army meet them when they were scattering devastation, and in a light skirmish shows them that impotent anger leads to nothing: he scatters their army, puts them to flight and pursues them, kills their king in battle and takes off his armor , and due to the death of the enemy leader, he takes the city at the first onslaught.
Having returned home with a victorious army and being a man as great in his exploits as he loved to show off them, he hung the armor from the killed enemy leader on a stretcher specially arranged for this purpose and entered the Capitol 29
...he hung the armor from the killed enemy leader on a stretcher specially arranged for this purpose and entered the Capitol...– This was not yet a triumph, the establishment of which Livy attributes to Tarquinius (chap. 38).
; Having laid them here near the oak tree, revered by the shepherds, and bringing gifts, he appointed a place for the temple of Jupiter and gave the god a new nickname. "Jupiter Feretrian 30
Jupiter Feretrian...– Jupiter of Feretria was revered as a military deity, to whom the “fat armor” taken from the leader of the enemy army by the Roman commander was dedicated. The temple of Jupiter Feretri (the oldest in Rome) was small, and there was no statue of the god - only a scepter and flint.
“, he said, “I, victorious King Romulus, bring you this royal weapon and dedicate a temple within these boundaries that I have just mentally designated 31
...I bring you this royal weapon and dedicate a temple within these boundaries that I have just mentally outlined... - Romulus performs actions attributed in other places to the augur (cf. ch. 18).
A place for “fat armor”, which, following my example, my descendants will bring, having killed enemy kings and leaders.” This is the origin of the first temple dedicated in Rome 32
...first temple dedicated in Rome. – This temple was located on the western slope of the Capitoline Hill.
So then the gods judged, so that these words of the founder of the temple, who announced that the descendants would bring armor here, would not be in vain; but at the same time, the honor of bringing this gift did not become common, since it fell to the lot of a few: in the subsequent time, for so many years and with so many wars, “fat armor” was acquired only twice. 33
...Only twice were “fat armor” acquired... – For the first time after Romulus, “fat armor” was brought by Aulus Cornelius Cossus, killing the Veian king Tolumnius (IV, 19), the second time by Marcus Claudius Marcellus, killing the Insubrian king Viridomarus (222 BC).
– so rarely did fate send this difference.
11 . Meanwhile, hordes of Anthemians, taking advantage of the opportunity - the absence of the Roman army, attacked their borders. But the Roman army was quickly brought against them and captured them as they scoured the fields. As a result, at the first onslaught, at the first cry, the enemy fled, and the city was taken. Romulus celebrated a double victory, and his wife Hersilia, yielding to the requests of the abducted, convinces him to forgive their parents and accept him as a citizen, pointing out that in this way, through agreement, the community can strengthen. Romulus easily bowed to her request. He then went to attack the inhabitants of Crustumeria, who had made an enemy attack. Here the struggle was even shorter, since the enemies lost heart due to the defeats suffered by others. Colonies were established in both areas; since Crustumeria was very fertile, more hunters were found in those lands; and from there many moved to Rome, mainly from the parents and relatives of the abducted.
The next attack was made by the Sabines, and it was the most serious of all. They did not act under the influence of irritation or passion and declared war only when they began it. Cunning was added to the deliberate plan. Commander of the Roman Fortress 34
...Roman Fortress... - The fortress is one of the two peaks of the Capitoline Hill.
There was Spurius Tarpeus. Tatius bribed his daughter, a girl, with gold so that she would let the armed men into the Fortress - she then accidentally went outside the city walls to get water for sacred rites. Having entered the Fortress, the Sabines threw weapons at it, either to make it seem as if they had occupied the Fortress by force, or to show an example that it is not at all necessary to keep your word in relation to a traitor. They add a fabulous story that she told herself what they wear on their left hand, since all the Sabines had heavy gold bracelets and large rings with stones on their left hands; but instead of gifts of gold they threw shields at her. Some say that, in the condition of transferring the Fortress, she directly demanded the weapon that they had in her left hand, as a result of which she was suspected of treachery and was killed by what she reprimanded herself as payment for the service.
12
. One way or another, the Fortress was in the hands of the Sabines, and the next day, when the lined up Roman army filled the entire space between the Palatine and Capitoline hills, they descended onto the plain only when the irritated Romans, eager to recapture the Fortress, launched an attack. And here and there the leaders encouraged the battle: on the side of the Sabines - Mettius Curtius, and on the side of the Romans - Hostius Hostilius. Standing in the front row, he supported the Romans with his cheerfulness and courage, although they occupied a disadvantageous position. As soon as Hostius fell, the Roman army immediately wavered and ran towards the old gates of the Palatine Hill. Romulus, also carried away by the crowd of fleeing people, raising his weapon to the sky, exclaimed: “Jupiter! By order of the birds you sent, I laid the foundation of a city here on the Palatine Hill. And the Sabines, having bought the Fortress by crime, own it; from there, with weapons in their hands, they rush here and have already crossed the middle of the valley; but you, father of gods and people, at least don’t let the enemies come here, free the Romans from fear and stop the shameful flight. Here I dedicate a temple to you, Jupiter Stator 35
...I dedicate the temple to you, Jupiter Stator... - The Temple of Jupiter Stator (the Maker) was built only in 294 BC. e. consul Marcus Atilius Regulus on the vow he made at the Battle of Luceria.
Which may serve as a reminder to posterity that the city was saved by your obvious help.” So, having prayed and as if feeling that his prayer had been heard, he said: “From here, Romans, Jupiter the All-Good Almighty 36
...Jupiter the All-Good Almighty... – Jupiter the All-Good Almighty ( Jupiter Optimus Maximus), or Jupiter Capitoline - the main deity of the pantheon. Originally personified the powers of sunlight, lightning, thunder and storms. – Note edit.
Orders to stop and resume the battle! And the Romans, as if at the beck of a heavenly voice, stopped; Romulus himself runs out to the front row. On the Sabine side, Mettius Curtius was the first to escape from the Fortress and drove the Romans throughout the space now occupied by the forum. 37
...throughout the space now occupied by the forum. – The Forum is the main square of Rome, in the lowland between the Palatine and the Capitol.
And he was already not far from the Palatine Gate, shouting: “We are the conquerors of treacherous friends and weak enemies; Now they know that it’s one thing to kidnap girls, and another to fight with their husbands!” While he was boasting like this, Romulus attacked him with a handful of the bravest young men. By chance, Mettius was fighting at that moment, sitting on a horse; the easier it was to put him to flight; the Romans pursued him. And another detachment, inflamed by the king’s courage, scattered the Sabines. Metti rushed into the swamp, as his horse was frightened by the noise of the pursuing enemy; This circumstance - the danger of such an important person - distracted the Sabines as well. And when he, approved by numerous signs of sympathy and his cries, got out, the Romans and Sabines, in the plain lying between two hills, resumed the battle. But the advantage was on the side of the Romans.
According to one version of the history of the founding of Rome, the following happened. After the destruction of ancient Troy, few defenders of the city managed to escape. They were led by the same Aeneas - the “motor boy”. The fugitives wandered the sea on their ships for a long time. And after a long journey, they were finally able to land on the shore. On the shore they saw the mouth of a wide river flowing into the sea. Along the banks of the river there is a forest and dense bushes. A little further under the blue sky lies a fertile plain, illuminated by the gentle sun.
Exhausted by the long journey, the Trojans decided to land on this hospitable shore and settle on it. This coast turned out to be the coast of Italy. Later, the son of Aeneas founded the city of Alba Longa on this site
Decades later, Alba Longa was ruled by Numitor, one of the descendants of Aeneas. Numitor was not very lucky with his close relative. His younger brother Amulius fiercely hated the ruler and longed to take his place. Thanks to insidious intrigues, Amulius overthrew Numitor, but allowed him to live. However, Amulius was very afraid of revenge from the descendants of Numitor. Because of this fear, the former ruler’s own son was killed on his orders. And their daughter Rhea Silvia was sent as a vestal virgin to. But, despite the fact that priestesses should not have offspring, Rhea Silvia soon gave birth to twin boys. According to another legend, their father could be the god of war, Mars.
Having learned about everything, Amulius became very angry and ordered that Rhea Silvia be killed and the newborns thrown into the city. The slave carrying out the order carried the children to the river in a basket. At this time there were large waves on the Tiber due to a strong flood, and the slave was afraid to go into the raging river.
He left the basket with the children on the shore in the hope that the water itself would pick up the basket and the twins would drown. But the river only carried the basket lower to the Palatine Hill, and soon the flood ended.
She-wolf
The water went away, and the boys fell out of the fallen basket and began to cry. In response to the children's cries, a she-wolf, who had recently lost her puppies, came to the river. She approached the children and the maternal instinct overpowered the predatory instinct. The she-wolf licked the children and gave them her milk. Nowadays, installed in a museum, it is a symbol of Rome.
Who raised Romulus and Remus
Later, the boys were noticed by the royal shepherd. He picked up the children and raised them. The shepherd named the twins Romulus and Remus. The children grew up in nature and became strong and agile warriors. When Remus and Romulus grew up, the named father revealed to them the secret of their birth. Having learned the secret of their origin, the brothers decided to return the throne to their grandfather Numitor. They gathered a detachment each and headed towards Alba Longa. The indigenous inhabitants of the city supported the uprising of Romulus and Remus, since Amulius was a very cruel ruler. So, thanks to the townspeople, the grandchildren were able to return the throne to their grandfather.
The young men fell in love with their way of life and did not stay with Numitor. They headed towards the Palatine Hill, to the place where the she-wolf had once found them. Here they decided to build their own city. However, in the process of deciding: “where to build the city?”, “Whose name should it be named after?” and “who should rule?”, a very strong quarrel broke out between the brothers. During the dispute, Romulus dug a ditch that was supposed to surround the future wall of the city. Rem, in mockery, jumped over both the ditch and the embankment. Romulus became angry and impulsively killed his brother with the words: “Such is the fate of anyone who crosses the walls of my city!”
Founding of Rome
Romulus then founded a city on this site, starting with a deep furrow that marked the boundaries of the city. And he named the city in his honor - Rome. In the beginning, the city was just a group of poor huts made of mud and straw. But Romulus really wanted to increase the population and wealth of his city. He attracted exiles and fugitives from other cities and carried out military raids on neighboring peoples. To get married, a Roman had to steal a wife from a neighboring village.
Rape of the Sabine Women
Legends say that once war games were organized in Rome to which neighbors and their families were invited. At the height of the games, adult men rushed to the guests and, grabbing the girl, ran away.
Since most of those abducted belonged to the Sabine tribe, the incident became known in history as the Rape of the Sabine Women. Thanks to the kidnapped women, Romulus managed to unite the Sabines and Romans into one, thus expanding the population of his city.
Development of ancient Rome
Years, decades and centuries passed. Rome developed and provided the basis for the most powerful of ancient civilizations - Ancient Rome. When Ancient Rome was at the height of its power, its power, culture and traditions spread across much of Europe, northern Africa, the Middle East and the Mediterranean. And the heart of this state was Italy.
Ancient Rome created the basis for the development of European civilization.
Thanks to him, some unique architectural forms, Roman law and much more appeared. Also, it was on the territory of the Roman Empire that a new faith was born - Christianity.
The capital of Italy has more than once experienced periods of both decline and revival. This Eternal City, standing on seven hills, harmoniously combines different eras with their diversity of styles. Antiquity and modernity, a certain freedom and religion created a multifaceted image of the great city. In modern Rome, the ruins of ancient temples, majestic cathedrals, luxurious palaces coexist with advertising of popular companies on billboards and house facades, and numerous retail outlets with their noisy merchants.
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