(according to the outdated classification - an element of the main subgroup of group VII), the second period, with atomic number 9. Denoted by the symbol F (lat. Fluorum). Fluorine is an extremely reactive non-metal and the strongest oxidizing agent; it is the lightest element from the halogen group. The simple substance fluorine (CAS number: 7782-41-4) under normal conditions is a diatomic gas (formula F 2) of a pale yellow color with a pungent odor reminiscent of ozone or chlorine. Very poisonous.
Story
The first fluorine compound - fluorite (fluorspar) CaF 2 - was described at the end of the 15th century under the name “fluor”. In 1771, Karl Scheele obtained hydrofluoric acid.
As one of the atoms of hydrofluoric acid, the element fluorine was predicted in 1810, and isolated in its free form only 76 years later by Henri Moissan in 1886 by electrolysis of liquid anhydrous hydrogen fluoride containing an admixture of acidic potassium fluoride KHF 2.
origin of name
The name “fluorine” (from ancient Greek φθόρος - destruction), proposed by Andre Ampère in 1810, is used in Russian and some other languages; in many countries, names are adopted that are derived from the Latin “fluorum” (which, in turn, comes from fluere - “to flow”, according to the property of the fluorine compound, fluorite (CaF 2), to lower the melting point of ore and increase the fluidity of the melt).
Receipt
The industrial method of obtaining fluorine includes the extraction and enrichment of fluorite ores, sulfuric acid decomposition of their concentrate with the formation of anhydrous HF and its electrolytic decomposition.
To obtain fluorine in the laboratory, the decomposition of certain compounds is used, but all of them are not found in nature in sufficient quantities and are obtained using free fluorine.
Physical properties
A pale yellow gas, in low concentrations the smell resembles both ozone and chlorine, it is very aggressive and poisonous.
Fluorine has an abnormally low boiling point (melting point). This is due to the fact that fluorine does not have a d-sublevel and is not able to form one-and-a-half bonds, unlike other halogens (the bond multiplicity in other halogens is approximately 1.1).
Chemical properties
The most active non-metal, it interacts violently with almost all substances except, of course, fluorides in higher oxidation states and rare exceptions - fluoroplastics, and with most of them - with combustion and explosion. Some metals are resistant to fluorine at room temperature due to the formation of a dense film of fluoride, which inhibits the reaction with fluorine - Al, Mg, Cu, Ni. Contact of fluorine with hydrogen leads to ignition and explosion even at very low temperatures (down to −252°C). Even water and platinum burn in a fluorine atmosphere:
2F 2 + 2H 2 O → 4HF + O 2
Reactions in which fluorine is formally a reducing agent include the decomposition reactions of higher fluorides, for example:
2CoF 3 → 2CoF 2 + F 2
MnF 4 → MnF 3 + 1/2 F 2
Fluorine is also capable of oxidizing oxygen in an electric discharge, forming oxygen fluoride OF 2 and dioxydifluoride O 2 F 2 .
In all compounds, fluorine exhibits an oxidation state of −1. In order for fluorine to exhibit a positive oxidation state, the creation of excimer molecules or other extreme conditions is required. This requires artificial ionization of fluorine atoms.
FLUORINE(lat. Fluorum), F, chemical element with atomic number 9, atomic mass 18.998403. Natural fluorine consists of one stable nuclide 19 F. The configuration of the outer electron layer is 2s2p5. In compounds it exhibits only the oxidation state –1 (valence I). Fluorine is located in the second period in group VIIA of Mendeleev’s periodic table of elements and belongs to the halogens. Under normal conditions, the gas is pale yellow in color with a pungent odor.
The history of the discovery of fluorine is associated with the mineral fluorite, or fluorspar, described in the late 15th century. The composition of this mineral, as is now known, corresponds to the formula CaF 2, and it represents the first fluorine-containing substance that man began to use. In ancient times, it was noted that if fluorite is added to ore during metal smelting, the melting point of the ore and slag is lowered, which greatly facilitates the process (hence the name of the mineral - from the Latin fluo - flow).
In 1771, by treating fluorite with sulfuric acid, the Swedish chemist K. Scheele prepared an acid that he called “fluoric acid.” The French scientist A. Lavoisier suggested that this acid contains a new chemical element, which he proposed to call “fluorem” (Lavoisier believed that hydrofluoric acid is a compound of fluorium with oxygen, because, according to Lavoisier, all acids must contain oxygen) . However, he was unable to identify a new element.
The new element was given the name “fluor”, which is also reflected in its Latin name. But long-term attempts to isolate this element in its free form were unsuccessful. Many scientists who tried to obtain it in free form died during such experiments or became disabled. These are the English chemists brothers T. and G. Knox, and the French J.-L. Gay-Lussac and L. J. Thénard, and many others. G. Davy himself, who was the first to obtain sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and other elements in free form, was poisoned and became seriously ill as a result of experiments on the production of fluorine by electrolysis. Probably, under the impression of all these failures, in 1816, a name that was similar in sound but completely different in meaning was proposed for the new element - fluorine (from the Greek phtoros - destruction, death). This name for the element is accepted only in Russian; the French and Germans continue to call fluorine fluor, the British - fluorine.
Even such an outstanding scientist as M. Faraday was unable to obtain fluorine in its free form. Only in 1886, the French chemist A. Moissan, using the electrolysis of liquid hydrogen fluoride HF, cooled to a temperature of –23°C (the liquid must contain a little potassium fluoride KF, which ensures its electrical conductivity), was able to obtain the first portion of a new, extremely reactive gas at the anode . In his first experiments, Moissan used a very expensive electrolyzer made of platinum (Pt) and iridium (Ir) to produce fluorine. Moreover, each gram of fluorine obtained “ate” up to 6 g of platinum. Later, Moissan began to use a much cheaper copper electrolyzer. Fluorine reacts with copper (Cu), but the reaction forms a thin film of fluoride, which prevents further destruction of the metal.
Fluorine chemistry began to develop in the 1930s, especially rapidly during and after the Second World War (1939-45) in connection with the needs of the nuclear industry and rocketry. The name "fluorine" (from the Greek phthoros - destruction, death), proposed by A. Ampere in 1810, is used only in Russian; In many countries the name "fluor" is accepted.
Occurrence in nature: the fluorine content in the earth's crust is quite high and amounts to 0.095% by weight (significantly more than the closest analogue of fluorine in the group - chlorine (Cl)). Due to its high chemical activity, fluorine, of course, does not occur in free form. Fluorine is an impurity found in many minerals and is found in groundwater and seawater. Fluorine is present in volcanic gases and thermal waters. The most important fluorine compounds are fluorite, cryolite and topaz. A total of 86 fluorine-containing minerals are known. Fluorine compounds are also found in apatites, phosphorites and others. Fluorine is an important biogenic element. In the history of the Earth, the source of fluorine entering the biosphere was the products of volcanic eruptions (gases, etc.).
Under normal conditions, fluorine is a gas (density 1.693 kg/m3) with a pungent odor. Boiling point –188.14°C, melting point –219.62°C. In the solid state it forms two modifications: the a-form, which exists from the melting point to –227.60°C, and the b-form, which is stable at temperatures lower than –227.60°C.
Like other halogens, fluorine exists in the form of diatomic F 2 molecules. The internuclear distance in the molecule is 0.14165 nm. The F2 molecule is characterized by an anomalously low energy of dissociation into atoms (158 kJ/mol), which, in particular, determines the high reactivity of fluorine. Direct fluoridation has a chain mechanism and can easily lead to combustion and explosion.
The chemical activity of fluorine is extremely high. Of all the elements with fluorine, only three light inert gases do not form fluorides - helium, neon and argon. In addition to the indicated inert gases, nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), diamond, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide do not react directly with fluorine under normal conditions. In all compounds, fluorine exhibits only one oxidation state –1.
Fluorine reacts directly with many simple and complex substances. Thus, upon contact with water, fluorine reacts with it (it is often said that “water burns in fluorine”), and OF 2 and hydrogen peroxide H 2 O 2 are also formed.
2F 2 + 2H 2 O = 4HF + O 2
Fluorine reacts explosively upon simple contact with hydrogen (H):
H 2 + F 2 = 2HF
This produces hydrogen fluoride gas HF, which is infinitely soluble in water with the formation of relatively weak hydrofluoric acid.
It interacts with oxygen in a glow discharge, forming oxygen fluorides O 2 P 3, O 3 F 2, etc. at low temperatures.
Reactions of fluorine with other halogens are exothermic, resulting in the formation of interhalogen compounds. Chlorine reacts with fluorine when heated to 200-250 °C, giving chlorine monofluoride СlF and chlorine trifluoride СlF 3. ClF 3 is also known, obtained by fluoridation of ClF 3 at high temperature and pressure of 25 MN/m 2 (250 kgf/cm 2). Bromine and iodine ignite in a fluorine atmosphere at normal temperature, and BrF 3, BrF 5, IF 5, IF 7 can be obtained. Fluorine reacts directly with krypton, xenon and radon, forming the corresponding fluorides (for example, XeF 4, XeF 6, KrF 2). Oxyfluoride and xenon are also known.
The interaction of fluorine with sulfur is accompanied by the release of heat and leads to the formation of numerous sulfur fluorides. Selenium and tellurium form higher fluorides SeF 6 and TeF 6. Fluorine reacts with nitrogen only in an electrical discharge. Charcoal, when interacting with fluorine, ignites at ordinary temperatures; graphite reacts with it under strong heating, and the formation of solid graphite fluoride or gaseous perfluorocarbons CF 4 and C 2 F 6 is possible. Fluorine reacts with silicon, phosphorus, and arsenic in the cold, forming the corresponding fluorides.
Fluorine combines vigorously with most metals; alkali and alkaline earth metals ignite in a fluorine atmosphere in the cold, Bi, Sn, Ti, Mo, W - with slight heating. Hg, Pb, U, V react with fluorine at room temperature, Pt - at a dark red heat temperature. When metals interact with fluorine, as a rule, higher fluorides are formed, for example UF 6, MoF 6, HgF 2. Some metals (Fe, Cu, Al, Ni, Mg, Zn) react with fluorine to form a protective film of fluorides that prevents further reaction.
When fluorine reacts with metal oxides in the cold, metal fluorides and oxygen are formed; The formation of metal oxyfluorides (for example, MoO2F2) is also possible. Non-metal oxides either add fluorine, for example
SO 2 + F 2 = SO 2 F 2
or oxygen in them is replaced by fluorine, for example
SiO 2 + 2F 2 = SiF 4 + O 2.
Glass reacts very slowly with fluorine; in the presence of water the reaction proceeds quickly. Nitrogen oxides NO and NO 2 easily add fluorine to form nitrosyl fluoride FNO and nitrile fluoride FNO 2 , respectively. Carbon monoxide adds fluorine when heated to form carbonyl fluoride:
CO + F 2 = COF 2
Metal hydroxides react with fluorine to form metal fluoride and oxygen, e.g.
2Ba(OH) 2 + 2F 2 = 2BaF 2 + 2H 2 O + O 2
Aqueous solutions of NaOH and KOH react with fluorine at O °C to form OF2.
Metal or non-metal halides react with fluorine in the cold, and fluorine will mix all the halogens.
Sulfides, nitrides and carbides are easily fluorinated. Metal hydrides form metal fluoride and HF with fluorine in the cold; ammonia (in vapor) - N 2 and HF. Fluorine replaces hydrogen in acids or metals in their salts, e.g.
НNO 3 (or NaNO 3) + F 2 → FNO 3 + HF (or NaF)
under more severe conditions, fluorine displaces oxygen from these compounds, forming sulfuryl fluoride.
Carbonates of alkali and alkaline earth metals react with fluorine at ordinary temperatures; this produces the corresponding fluoride, CO 2 and O 2 .
Fluorine reacts vigorously with organic substances.
At the first stage of fluorine production, hydrogen fluoride HF is isolated. The preparation of hydrogen fluoride and hydrofluoric acid occurs, as a rule, along with the processing of fluorapatite into phosphate fertilizers. Hydrogen fluoride gas formed during sulfuric acid treatment of fluorapatite is then collected, liquefied and used for electrolysis. Electrolysis can be carried out either as a liquid mixture of HF and KF (the process is carried out at a temperature of 15-20°C), as well as a melt of KH 2 F 3 (at a temperature of 70-120°C) or a melt of KHF 2 (at a temperature of 245-310°C) . In the laboratory, to prepare small quantities of free fluorine, one can use either heating MnF 4, which eliminates fluorine, or heating a mixture of K 2 MnF 6 and SbF 5.
Fluorine is stored in a gaseous state (under pressure) and in liquid form (when cooled with liquid nitrogen) in devices made of nickel and alloys based on it, copper, aluminum and its alloys, and stainless steel brass.
Gaseous fluorine is used for the fluorination of UF 4 into UF 6, used for isotope separation of uranium, as well as for the production of chlorine trifluoride ClF 3 (fluorinating agent), sulfur hexafluoride SF 6 (gaseous insulator in the electrical industry), metal fluorides (for example, W and V). Liquid fluorine is a rocket fuel oxidizer.
Numerous fluorine compounds are widely used - hydrogen fluoride, aluminum fluoride, silicon fluorides, fluorosulfonic acid, as solvents, catalysts and reagents for the production of organic compounds.
Fluorine is used in the production of Teflon, other fluoroplastics, fluorine rubbers, fluorine-containing organic substances and materials that are widely used in technology, especially in cases where resistance to aggressive environments, high temperatures, etc. is required.
Fluorine is constantly included in animal and plant tissues; microelements. In the form of inorganic compounds it is found mainly in the bones of animals and humans - 100-300 mg/kg; There is especially a lot of fluoride in teeth. The bones of marine animals are richer in fluoride compared to the bones of land animals. It enters the body of animals and humans mainly with drinking water, the optimal fluorine content of which is 1-1.5 mg/l.
With a lack of fluoride, a person develops dental caries. Therefore, fluoride compounds are added to toothpastes and sometimes added to drinking water. Excess fluoride in water, however, is also harmful to health. It leads to fluorosis - a change in the structure of enamel and bone tissue, bone deformation. High concentrations of fluoride ions are dangerous due to their ability to inhibit a number of enzymatic reactions, as well as to bind biologically important elements (P, Ca, Mg, etc.), disrupting their balance in the body.
Organic fluorine derivatives are found only in some plants. The main ones are derivatives of fluoroacetic acid, toxic to both other plants and animals. The biological role is not well understood. A connection has been established between fluorine metabolism and the formation of skeletal bone tissue and especially teeth. The need for fluorine for plants has not been proven.
Possible for those working in the chemical industry, in the synthesis of fluorine-containing compounds and in the production of phosphate fertilizers. Fluoride irritates the respiratory tract and causes skin burns. In acute poisoning, irritation of the mucous membranes of the larynx and bronchi, eyes, salivation, and nosebleeds occur; in severe cases - pulmonary edema, damage to the center, nervous system, etc.; in chronic cases - conjunctivitis, bronchitis, pneumonia, pneumosclerosis, fluorosis. Skin lesions such as eczema are characteristic.
First aid: rinsing the eyes with water, for skin burns - irrigation with 70% alcohol; in case of inhalation poisoning - inhalation of oxygen.
Prevention: compliance with safety regulations, wearing special clothing, regular medical examinations, inclusion of calcium and vitamins in the diet.
(F-F) 0.51 kJ/mol
6.54 (F-F) kJ/mol
monoclinic
(300 K) 0.028 W/(m K)
| 9 | |
| 2s 2 2p 5 | |
Story
As one of the atoms of hydrofluoric acid, the element fluorine was predicted in 1810, and isolated in free form only 76 years later by Henri Moissan in 1886 by electrolysis of liquid anhydrous hydrogen fluoride containing an admixture of acidic potassium fluoride KHF 2.
origin of name
The fluorine content in the soil is due to volcanic gases, due to the fact that their composition usually includes a large amount of hydrogen fluoride.
Isotopic composition
Fluorine is a monoisotopic element, since in nature there is only one stable fluorine isotope 19 F. Another 17 radioactive isotopes of fluorine are known with a mass number from 14 to 31, and one nuclear isomer - 18 F m. The longest-lived radioactive isotope of fluorine is 18 F, with a half-life of 109.771 minutes, an important source of positrons, used in positron emission tomography.
Nuclear properties of fluorine isotopes
| Isotope | Relative mass, a.m.u. | Half life | Decay type | Nuclear spin | Nuclear magnetic moment |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 17F | 17,0020952 | 64.5 s | β+-decay into 17 O | 5/2 | 4.722 |
| 18 F | 18,000938 | 1.83 hours | β+-decay into 18 O | 1 | |
| 19F | 18,99840322 | Stable | - | 1/2 | 2.629 |
| 20 F | 19,9999813 | 11 s | β− decay in 20 Ne | 2 | 2.094 |
| 21F | 20,999949 | 4.2 s | β− decay in 21 Ne | 5/2 | |
| 22F | 22,00300 | 4.23 s | β− decay in 22 Ne | 4 | |
| 23F | 23,00357 | 2.2 s | β− decay in 23 Ne | 5/2 |
Magnetic properties of nuclei
The nuclei of the 19 F isotope have a half-integer spin, so these nuclei can be used for NMR studies of molecules. The 19 F NMR spectra are quite characteristic of organofluorine compounds.
Electronic structure
The electronic configuration of the fluorine atom is as follows: 1s 2 2s 2 2p 5. Fluorine atoms in compounds can exhibit an oxidation state of −1. Positive oxidation states are not realized in compounds, since fluorine is the most electronegative element.
The quantum chemical term of the fluorine atom is 2 P 3/2.
Molecule structure
From the point of view of molecular orbital theory, the structure of a diatomic fluorine molecule can be characterized by the following diagram. The molecule contains 4 bonding orbitals and 3 antibonding orbitals. The bond order in a molecule is 1.
Crystal cell
Fluorine forms two crystalline modifications that are stable at atmospheric pressure:
Receipt
The industrial method of obtaining fluorine includes the extraction and enrichment of fluorite ores, sulfuric acid decomposition of their concentrate to form anhydrous and its electrolytic decomposition.
To obtain fluorine in the laboratory, the decomposition of certain compounds is used, but all of them are not found in nature in sufficient quantities and are obtained using free fluorine.
Laboratory method
Although this method has no practical application, it demonstrates that electrolysis is not necessary and that all components for these reactions can be prepared without the use of fluorine gas.
Also, for laboratory production of fluorine, you can use heating cobalt (III) fluoride to 300 ° C, decomposition of silver fluorides (too expensive) and some other methods.
Industrial method
Industrial production of fluorine is carried out by electrolysis of a melt of acidic potassium fluoride KF·2HF (often with the addition of lithium fluoride), which is formed when the KF melt is saturated with hydrogen fluoride to a content of 40-41% HF. The electrolysis process is carried out at temperatures of about 100 °C in steel electrolysers with a steel cathode and a carbon anode.
Physical properties
A pale yellow gas, in low concentrations the smell resembles both ozone and chlorine, it is very aggressive and poisonous.
Fluorine has an abnormally low boiling point (melting point). This is due to the fact that fluorine does not have a d-sublevel and is not able to form sesqui-and-a-half bonds, unlike other halogens (the bond multiplicity in other halogens is approximately 1.1).
Chemical properties
Reactions in which fluorine is formally a reducing agent include the decomposition reactions of higher fluorides, for example:
Fluorine is also capable of oxidizing oxygen in an electric discharge, forming oxygen fluoride OF 2 and dioxydifluoride O 2 F 2 .
In all compounds, fluorine exhibits an oxidation state of −1. In order for fluorine to exhibit a positive oxidation state, the creation of excimer molecules or other extreme conditions is required. This requires artificial ionization of fluorine atoms.
Storage
Fluorine is stored in a gaseous state (under pressure) and in liquid form (when cooled with liquid nitrogen) in devices made of nickel and alloys based on it (Monel metal), copper, aluminum and its alloys, brass, stainless steel (this is possible because that these metals and alloys are coated with a film of fluorides that is insurmountable to fluorine).
Application
Fluorine is used to obtain:
- Freons are widely used refrigerants.
- Fluoroplastics are chemically inert polymers.
- SF6 gas is a gaseous insulator used in high-voltage electrical engineering.
- Uranium hexafluoride UF 6, used for separating uranium isotopes in the nuclear industry.
- Sodium hexafluoroaluminate - electrolyte for producing aluminum by electrolysis.
- Metal fluorides (such as W and V), which have some beneficial properties.
Rocketry
Fluorine and some of its compounds are strong oxidizing agents, so they can be used as an oxidizing agent in rocket fuels. The very high efficiency of fluorine aroused considerable interest in it and its compounds. At the dawn of the space age, the USSR and other countries had research programs for fluorinated rocket fuels. However, combustion products with fluorine-containing oxidizers are toxic. Therefore, fluorine-based fuels have not become widespread in modern rocket technology.
Application in medicine
Fluorinated hydrocarbons (eg, perfluorodecalin) are used in medicine as blood substitutes. There are many drugs containing fluorine in their structure (fluorotane, fluorouracil, fluoxetine, haloperidol, etc.).
Biological and physiological role
Fluorine is a vital element for the body. In the human body, fluorine is mainly contained in tooth enamel as part of fluorapatite - Ca 5 F (PO 4) 3. With insufficient (less than 0.5 mg/liter of drinking water) or excessive (more than 1 mg/liter) consumption of fluoride, the body can develop dental diseases: caries and fluorosis (mottling of enamel) and osteosarcoma, respectively.
To prevent caries, it is recommended to use toothpastes with fluoride additives (sodium and/or tin) or drink fluoridated water (up to a concentration of 1 mg/l), or use local applications of a 1-2% solution of sodium fluoride or tin fluoride. Such actions can reduce the likelihood of tooth decay by 30-50%.
The maximum permissible concentration of bound fluorine in the air of industrial premises is 0.0005 mg/liter of air.
Toxicology
see also
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Literature
- Ryss I. G. Chemistry of fluorine and its inorganic compounds. M. Goskhimizdat, 1966 - 718 p.
- Nekrasov B.V. Fundamentals of general chemistry. (third edition, volume 1) M. Chemistry, 1973 - 656 p.
- L. Pauling, I. Keaveny, and A.B. Robinson, J. Solid State Chem., 1970, 2, p. 225. English {{{1}}} - Learn more about the crystal structure of fluorine.
Notes
- . Retrieved March 14, 2013. .
- Michael E. Wieser, Norman Holden, Tyler B. Coplen, John K. Böhlke, Michael Berglund, Willi A. Brand, Paul De Bièvre, Manfred Gröning, Robert D. Loss, Juris Meija, Takafumi Hirata, Thomas Prohaska, Ronny Schoenberg, Glenda O'Connor, Thomas Walczyk, Shige Yoneda, Xiang-Kun Zhu.(English) // Pure and Applied Chemistry. - 2013. - Vol. 85, no. 5 . - P. 1047-1078. - DOI:10.1351/PAC-REP-13-03-02.
- Chemical Encyclopedia / Editorial Board: Zefirov N.S. and others. - M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 1998. - T. 5. - 783 p. - ISBN 5-85270-310-9.
- on the IUPAC website
- Mainly in tooth enamel
- Journal of Solid State Chemistry, Vol. 2, Issue 2, 1970, pp. 225-227.
- J. Chem. Phys. 49, 1902 (1968)
- Greenwood N., Earnshaw A.“Chemistry of elements” vol. 2, M.: BINOM. Laboratory of Knowledge, 2008 pp. 147-148, 169 - chemical synthesis of fluorine
- Akhmetov N. S."General and inorganic chemistry".
- Encyclopedic dictionary of a young chemist. For middle and older age. Moscow, Pedagogy-Press. 1999
- According to the National Toxicology Program
- in the form of fluorides and organofluorine compounds
- N. V. Lazarev, I. D. Gadaskina “Harmful substances in industry” Volume 3, page 19.
Links
| Portal "Chemistry" | |
| Fluorine in Wiktionary | |
| Project "Chemistry" |
- // Bulletin of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 1997, volume 67, N 11, p. 998-1013.
| Periodic table of chemical elements by D. I. Mendeleev | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| F | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Noble gases | Properties unknown | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Excerpt characterizing Fluorine
If the goal of the Russians was to cut off and capture Napoleon and the marshals, and this goal was not only not achieved, but all attempts to achieve this goal were each time destroyed in the most shameful way, then the last period of the campaign quite rightly seems to be close to the French victories and is completely unfairly presented by Russian historians as victorious.Russian military historians, to the extent that logic is obligatory for them, involuntarily come to this conclusion and, despite lyrical appeals about courage and devotion, etc., must involuntarily admit that the French retreat from Moscow is a series of victories for Napoleon and defeats for Kutuzov.
But, leaving national pride completely aside, one feels that this conclusion itself contains a contradiction, since a series of victories for the French led them to complete destruction, and a series of defeats for the Russians led them to the complete destruction of the enemy and the purification of their fatherland.
The source of this contradiction lies in the fact that historians who study events from letters of sovereigns and generals, from reports, reports, plans, etc., have assumed a false, never-existent goal for the last period of the war of 1812 - a goal that supposedly consisted of to cut off and catch Napoleon with the marshals and the army.
This goal never existed and could not exist, because it had no meaning, and achieving it was completely impossible.
This goal did not make any sense, firstly, because Napoleon’s frustrated army fled from Russia as quickly as possible, that is, it fulfilled the very thing that every Russian could wish for. Why was it necessary to carry out various operations on the French, who fled as quickly as they could?
Secondly, it was pointless to stand in the way of people who had directed all their energy to escape.
Thirdly, it was pointless to lose their troops to destroy the French armies, which were destroyed without external reasons in such a progression that without any blocking of the path they could not transfer across the border more than what they transferred in the month of December, that is, one hundredth of the entire army.
Fourthly, it was pointless to want to capture the emperor, kings, dukes - people whose captivity would greatly complicate the actions of the Russians, as the most skillful diplomats of that time admitted (J. Maistre and others). Even more senseless was the desire to take the French corps when their troops had melted halfway to Krasny, and convoy divisions had to be separated from the corps of prisoners, and when their soldiers did not always receive full provisions and the already taken prisoners were dying of hunger.
The entire thoughtful plan to cut off and catch Napoleon and his army was similar to the plan of a gardener who, driving cattle out of the garden that had trampled his ridges, would run to the gate and begin to beat this cattle on the head. One thing that could be said to justify the gardener would be that he was very angry. But this could not even be said about the drafters of the project, because they were not the ones who suffered from the trampled ridges.
But, besides the fact that cutting off Napoleon and the army was pointless, it was impossible.
This was impossible, firstly, because, since experience shows that the movement of columns over five miles in one battle never coincides with plans, the likelihood that Chichagov, Kutuzov and Wittgenstein would converge on time at the appointed place was so insignificant , that it amounted to impossibility, as Kutuzov thought, even when he received the plan, he said that sabotage over long distances does not bring the desired results.
Secondly, it was impossible because, in order to paralyze the force of inertia with which Napoleon’s army was moving back, it was necessary to have, without comparison, larger troops than those that the Russians had.
Thirdly, it was impossible because cutting off a military word has no meaning. You can cut off a piece of bread, but not an army. There is no way to cut off an army - to block its path, because there is always a lot of space around where you can go around, and there is night, during which nothing is visible, as military scientists could be convinced of, even from the examples of Krasny and Berezina. It is impossible to take prisoner without the person being taken prisoner agreeing to it, just as it is impossible to catch a swallow, although you can take it when it lands on your hand. You can take prisoner someone who surrenders, like the Germans, according to the rules of strategy and tactics. But the French troops, quite rightly, did not find this convenient, since the same hungry and cold death awaited them on the run and in captivity.
Fourthly, and most importantly, this was impossible because never since the world existed has there been a war under the terrible conditions under which it took place in 1812, and the Russian troops, in pursuit of the French, strained all their strength and did not could have done more without being destroyed themselves.
In the movement of the Russian army from Tarutino to Krasnoye, fifty thousand were left sick and backward, that is, a number equal to the population of a large provincial city. Half the people dropped out of the army without fighting.
And about this period of the campaign, when troops without boots and fur coats, with incomplete provisions, without vodka, spend the night for months in the snow and at fifteen degrees below zero; when there are only seven and eight hours of the day, and the rest is night, during which there can be no influence of discipline; when, not like in a battle, for a few hours only people are introduced into the realm of death, where there is no longer discipline, but when people live for months, every minute struggling with death from hunger and cold; when half the army dies in a month - historians tell us about this and that period of the campaign, how Miloradovich was supposed to make a flank march this way, and Tormasov there that way, and how Chichagov was supposed to move there that way (move above his knees in the snow), and how he knocked over and cut off, etc., etc.
The Russians, half dying, did everything that could be done and should have been done to achieve a goal worthy of the people, and they are not to blame for the fact that other Russian people, sitting in warm rooms, assumed to do what was impossible.
All this strange, now incomprehensible contradiction of fact with the description of history occurs only because the historians who wrote about this event wrote the history of the wonderful feelings and words of various generals, and not the history of events.
For them, the words of Miloradovich, the awards that this and that general received, and their assumptions seem very interesting; and the question of those fifty thousand who remained in hospitals and graves does not even interest them, because it is not subject to their study.
Meanwhile, you just have to turn away from studying reports and general plans, and delve into the movement of those hundreds of thousands of people who took a direct, immediate part in the event, and all the questions that previously seemed insoluble suddenly, with extraordinary ease and simplicity, receive an undoubted solution.
The goal of cutting off Napoleon and his army never existed except in the imagination of a dozen people. It could not exist because it was meaningless and achieving it was impossible.
The people had one goal: to cleanse their land from invasion. This goal was achieved, firstly, by itself, since the French fled, and therefore it was only necessary not to stop this movement. Secondly, this goal was achieved by the actions of the people's war, which destroyed the French, and, thirdly, by the fact that a large Russian army followed the French, ready to use force if the French movement was stopped.
The Russian army had to act like a whip on a running animal. And an experienced driver knew that it was most beneficial to hold the whip raised, threatening it, and not to whip a running animal on the head.
When a person sees a dying animal, horror seizes him: what he himself is, his essence, is obviously destroyed in his eyes - ceases to be. But when the dying person is a person, and the loved one is felt, then, in addition to the horror of the destruction of life, one feels a gap and a spiritual wound, which, just like a physical wound, sometimes kills, sometimes heals, but always hurts and is afraid of an external irritating touch.
After the death of Prince Andrei, Natasha and Princess Marya felt this equally. They, bent morally and closing their eyes from the menacing cloud of death hanging over them, did not dare to look life in the face. They carefully protected their open wounds from offensive, painful touches. Everything: a carriage driving quickly down the street, a reminder about lunch, a girl’s question about a dress that needs to be prepared; even worse, the word of insincere, weak sympathy painfully irritated the wound, seemed like an insult and violated that necessary silence in which they both tried to listen to the terrible, strict chorus that had not yet ceased in their imagination, and prevented them from peering into those mysterious endless distances that opened for a moment In front of them.
Just the two of them, it wasn't offensive or painful. They spoke little to each other. If they talked, it was about the most insignificant subjects. Both of them equally avoided mentioning anything related to the future.
To admit the possibility of a future seemed to them an insult to his memory. They were even more careful to avoid in their conversations everything that could be related to the deceased. It seemed to them that what they experienced and felt could not be expressed in words. It seemed to them that any mention in words of the details of his life violated the greatness and sacredness of the sacrament that had taken place in their eyes.
Incessant abstinence of speech, constant diligent avoidance of everything that could lead to a word about him: these stops on different sides on the border of what could not be said, exposed even more purely and clearly before their imagination what they felt.
But pure, complete sadness is just as impossible as pure and complete joy. Princess Marya, in her position as one independent mistress of her destiny, guardian and educator of her nephew, was the first to be called to life from the world of sadness in which she lived for the first two weeks. She received letters from relatives that had to be answered; the room in which Nikolenka was placed was damp, and he began to cough. Alpatych came to Yaroslavl with reports on affairs and with proposals and advice to move to Moscow to the Vzdvizhensky house, which remained intact and required only minor repairs. Life did not stop, and we had to live. No matter how hard it was for Princess Marya to leave the world of solitary contemplation in which she had lived until now, no matter how pitiful and as if ashamed she was to leave Natasha alone, the worries of life demanded her participation, and she involuntarily surrendered to them. She checked accounts with Alpatych, consulted with Desalles about her nephew, and made orders and preparations for her move to Moscow.
Natasha remained alone and since Princess Marya began making preparations for her departure, she avoided her too.
Princess Marya invited the Countess to let Natasha go with her to Moscow, and the mother and father joyfully agreed to this proposal, noticing every day the decline in their daughter’s physical strength and believing that both a change of place and the help of Moscow doctors would be useful for her.
“I’m not going anywhere,” Natasha answered when this proposal was made to her, “just please leave me,” she said and ran out of the room, barely holding back tears not so much of grief as of frustration and anger.
After she felt abandoned by Princess Marya and alone in her grief, Natasha most of the time, alone in her room, sat with her feet in the corner of the sofa, and, tearing or kneading something with her thin, tense fingers, looked with a persistent, motionless gaze to what the eyes rested on. This solitude exhausted and tormented her; but it was necessary for her. As soon as someone came in to see her, she quickly stood up, changed her position and expression, and took up a book or sewing, obviously impatiently awaiting the departure of the one who had disturbed her.
It seemed to her that she would now understand, would penetrate, what her soulful gaze was directed at with a terrible question beyond her power.
At the end of December, in a black woolen dress, with a braid carelessly tied in a bun, thin and pale, Natasha sat with her legs in the corner of the sofa, tensely crumpling and unraveling the ends of her belt, and looked at the corner of the door.
She looked where he had gone, to the other side of life. And that side of life, which she had never thought about before, which had previously seemed so distant and incredible to her, was now closer and dearer to her, more understandable than this side of life, in which everything was either emptiness and destruction, or suffering and insult.
She looked to where she knew he was; but she could not see him otherwise than as he was here. She saw him again the same as he was in Mytishchi, at Trinity, in Yaroslavl.
She saw his face, heard his voice and repeated his words and her words spoken to him, and sometimes she came up with new words for herself and for him that could then be said.
Here he lies on an armchair in his velvet fur coat, resting his head on his thin, pale hand. His chest is terribly low and his shoulders are raised. The lips are firmly compressed, the eyes shine, and a wrinkle jumps up and disappears on the pale forehead. One of his legs is trembling almost noticeably quickly. Natasha knows that he is struggling with excruciating pain. “What is this pain? Why pain? How does he feel? How it hurts!” - Natasha thinks. He noticed her attention, raised his eyes and, without smiling, began to speak.
“One terrible thing,” he said, “is to associate yourself forever with a suffering person. This is eternal torment." And he looked at her with a searching look—Natasha now saw this look. Natasha, as always, answered then before she had time to think about what she was answering; she said: “This cannot go on like this, this will not happen, you will be healthy - completely.”
She now saw him first and now experienced everything that she had felt then. She remembered his long, sad, stern look at these words and understood the meaning of the reproach and despair of this long look.
“I agreed,” Natasha was now telling herself, “that it would be terrible if he remained always suffering. I said it that way only because it would have been terrible for him, but he understood it differently. He thought it would be terrible for me. He still wanted to live then - he was afraid of death. And I told him so rudely and stupidly. I didn't think that. I thought something completely different. If I had said what I thought, I would have said: even if he were dying, dying all the time before my eyes, I would be happy compared to what I am now. Now... Nothing, no one. Did he know this? No. Didn't know and never will. And now it will never, never be possible to correct this.” And again he told her the same words, but now in her imagination Natasha answered him differently. She stopped him and said: “Terrible for you, but not for me. You know that I have nothing in life without you, and suffering with you is the best happiness for me.” And he took her hand and pressed it as he had pressed it on that terrible evening, four days before his death. And in her imagination she told him other tender, loving speeches that she could have said then, which she said now. “I love you... you... I love you, I love you...” she said, convulsively squeezing her hands, gritting her teeth with fierce effort.
(first electron)
(according to Pauling)
| F | 9 |
| 18,9984 | |
| 2s 2 2p 5 | |
| Fluorine | |
Chemical properties
The most active non-metal, it interacts violently with almost all substances (rare exceptions are fluoroplastics), and with most of them - with combustion and explosion. Contact of fluorine with hydrogen leads to ignition and explosion even at very low temperatures (down to −252°C). Even water and platinum:uranium for the nuclear industry burn in a fluorine atmosphere.
chlorine trifluoride ClF 3 - a fluorinating agent and a powerful oxidizer of rocket fuel
sulfur hexafluoride SF 6 - gaseous insulator in the electrical industry
metal fluorides (such as W and V), which have some beneficial properties
freons are good refrigerants
teflon - chemically inert polymers
sodium hexafluoroaluminate - for subsequent production of aluminum by electrolysis
various fluorine compounds
Rocketry
Fluorine compounds are widely used in rocket technology as an oxidizer for rocket fuel.Application in medicine
Fluoride compounds are widely used in medicine as blood substitutes.
Biological and physiological role
Fluorine is a vital element for the body. In the human body, fluorine is mainly found in tooth enamel in the composition of fluorapatite - Ca 5 F (PO 4) 3. With insufficient (less than 0.5 mg/liter of drinking water) or excessive (more than 1 mg/liter) consumption of fluoride, the body can develop dental diseases: caries and fluorosis (mottling of enamel) and osteosarcoma, respectively.
To prevent caries, it is recommended to use toothpastes with fluoride additives or drink fluoridated water (up to a concentration of 1 mg/l), or use local applications of a 1-2% solution of sodium fluoride or stannous fluoride. Such actions can reduce the likelihood of tooth decay by 30-50%.
The maximum permissible concentration of bound fluorine in the air of industrial premises is 0.0005 mg/liter.
Additional Information
Fluorine, Fluorum, F(9)
Fluorine (Fluorine, French and German Fluor) was obtained in a free state in 1886, but its compounds have been known for a long time and were widely used in metallurgy and glass production. The first mention of fluorite (CaP) under the name fluorspar (Fliisspat) dates back to the 16th century. One of the works attributed to the legendary Vasily Valentin mentions stones painted in various colors - flux (Fliisse from the Latin fluere - to flow, pour), which were used as fluxes in the smelting of metals. Agricola and Libavius write about this. The latter introduces special names for this flux - fluorspar (Flusspat) and mineral fluors. Many authors of chemical and technical works of the 17th and 18th centuries. describe different types of fluorspar. In Russia, these stones were called plavik, spalt, spat; Lomonosov classified these stones as selenites and called them spar or flux (crystal flux). Russian craftsmen, as well as collectors of mineral collections (for example, in the 18th century, Prince P.F. Golitsyn) knew that some types of spar when heated (for example, in hot water) glow in the dark. However, Leibniz, in his history of phosphorus (1710), mentions thermophosphorus (Thermophosphorus) in this regard.
Apparently, chemists and artisan chemists became acquainted with hydrofluoric acid no later than the 17th century. In 1670, the Nuremberg artisan Schwanhard used fluorspar mixed with sulfuric acid to etch patterns on glass goblets. However, at that time the nature of fluorspar and hydrofluoric acid was completely unknown. It was believed, for example, that silicic acid had a pickling effect in the Schwanhard process. This erroneous opinion was eliminated by Scheele, who proved that when fluorspar reacts with sulfuric acid, silicic acid is obtained as a result of the corrosion of a glass retort by the resulting hydrofluoric acid. In addition, Scheele established (1771) that fluorspar is a combination of calcareous earth with a special acid, which was called “Swedish acid”.
Lavoisier recognized the hydrofluoric acid radical as a simple body and included it in his table of simple bodies. Hydrofluoric acid was obtained in more or less pure form in 1809. Gay-Lussac and Thénard by distilling fluorspar with sulfuric acid in a lead or silver retort. During this operation, both researchers were poisoned. The true nature of hydrofluoric acid was established in 1810 by Ampere. He rejected Lavoisier's opinion that hydrofluoric acid should contain oxygen, and proved the analogy of this acid with hydrochloric acid. Ampere reported his findings to Davy, who had recently established the elemental nature of chlorine. Davy completely agreed with Ampere's arguments and spent a lot of effort on obtaining free fluorine by electrolysis of hydrofluoric acid and other ways. Taking into account the strong corrosive effect of hydrofluoric acid on glass, as well as on plant and animal tissues, Ampere proposed calling the element contained in it fluorine (Greek - destruction, death, pestilence, plague, etc.). However, Davy did not accept this name and proposed another - Fluorine, by analogy with the then name of chlorine - Chlorine, both names are still used in English. The name given by Ampere has been preserved in Russian.
Numerous attempts to isolate free fluorine in the 19th century. did not lead to successful results. Only in 1886 did Moissan manage to do this and obtain free fluorine in the form of a yellow-green gas. Since fluorine is an unusually aggressive gas, Moissan had to overcome many difficulties before he found a material suitable for equipment in experiments with fluorine. The U-tube for electrolysis of hydrofluoric acid at 55°C (cooled with liquid methyl chloride) was made of platinum with fluorspar plugs. After the chemical and physical properties of free fluorine were studied, it found wide application. Now fluorine is one of the most important components in the synthesis of a wide range of organofluorine substances. In Russian literature of the early 19th century. fluorine was called differently: hydrofluoric acid base, fluorin (Dvigubsky, 1824), fluoricity (Iovsky), fluor (Shcheglov, 1830), fluor, fluorine, fluoride. Hess introduced the name fluorine in 1831.
Destruction and death. This is how the name is translated from Greek fluoride. The name is associated with the history of its discovery. Dozens of scientists were injured or died trying to isolate the element whose existence Scheele first suggested. He obtained hydrofluoric acid, but was unable to extract a new substance from it - fluorium.
The name is associated with the mineral - the basis of hydrofluoric acid and the main source of fluoride. The Knox brothers from England and Gay-Lussac and Tenard from France also tried to obtain it by electrolysis. They died during the experiments.
Davy, who discovered sodium, potassium and calcium, contacted fluorium, was poisoned and became disabled. Afterwards, the scientific community renamed the element. But is it really that dangerous outside of chemical laboratories and why is it needed? We will answer these questions further.
Chemical and physical properties of fluorine
Fluorine occupies 9th position in. In nature, an element consists of a single stable nuclide. This is the name for atoms whose life cycle is sufficient for observations and scientific research. Weight fluorine atom– 18,998. There are 2 atoms in a molecule.
Fluorine – element with the highest electronegativity. The phenomenon is associated with the ability of an atom to connect with others and attract electrons to itself. Fluorine's index on the Pauling scale is 4. This contributes to the fame of the 9th element as the most active non-metal. In its normal state, it is a yellowish gas. It is toxic and has a pungent odor - something between the aromas of ozone and chlorine.
Fluorine is a substance with an abnormally low boiling point for gases - only 188 degrees Celsius. The remaining halogens, that is, typical non-metals from the 7th group of the periodic table, boil at high rates. This is due to the fact that they have a d-sublevel responsible for sesqui-and-a-half bonds. Fluorine molecule does not have one.
The activity of fluorine is expressed in the number and nature of possible reactions with other elements. Connection with most of them is accompanied by burning and explosions. In contact with hydrogen, a flame is generated even at low temperatures. Even water burns in a fluorine atmosphere. Moreover, in a chamber with a yellowish gas, the most inert and valuable element ignites.
Fluorine compounds impossible only with neon, argon and helium. All 3 gases are light and inert. Not from gases, does not lend itself to fluorine. There are a number of elements with which reactions are possible only at elevated temperatures. Yes, couple chlorofluorine interacts only at 200-250 degrees Celsius.
Application of fluoride
Without fluoride Teflon coatings are not necessary. Their scientific name is tetrafluoroethylene. The compounds belong to the organic group and have non-stick properties. In essence, Teflon is a plastic, but unusually heavy. The density of water is 2 times higher - this is the reason for the excess weight of the coating and the dishes with it.
In the nuclear industry fluorine It has connection with the process of separating uranium isotopes. Scientists say that if there were no 9th element, there would be no nuclear power plants. Not just any uranium serves as fuel for them, but only a few of its isotopes, in particular 235. Separation methods are designed for gases and volatile liquids.
But, uranium boils at 3500 degrees Celsius. It is unclear what materials for columns and centrifuges will withstand such heat. Fortunately, there is volatile uranium hexafluoride, which boils only at 57 degrees. It is from this that the metal fraction is isolated.
Fluorine oxidation, more precisely, its oxidation of rocket fuel is an important element of the aviation industry. It is not the gaseous element that is useful in it, but the liquid. In this state, fluorine becomes bright yellow and most reactive.
In metallurgy, standard gas is used. Fluoride formula transforms. The element is included in the compound necessary to produce aluminum. It is produced by electrolysis. This is where hexafluoroaluminate is involved.
Connection comes in handy in optics magnesium fluorine, that is, fluoride. It is transparent in the range of light waves from vacuum ultraviolet to infrared radiation. Here comes the connection to lenses and prisms for specialized optical instruments.
The 9th element was also noticed by doctors, in particular, dentists. They found 0.02% fluoride in teeth. Then it turned out that in regions where there is not enough substance, the incidence of caries is higher.
Contained fluoride in water, from where it enters the body. In scarce areas, they began to artificially add the element to the water. The situation has improved. Therefore, it was created fluoride paste.
Fluoride in dental enamel can cause fluorosis - darkening, spotting of tissues. This is a consequence of an overabundance of the element. Therefore, in regions with normal water composition it is better to choose toothpaste without fluoride. It is also necessary to monitor its content in food products. There is even fluoridated milk. There is no need to enrich seafood; they already contain a lot of the 9th element.
Pasta without fluoride– a choice related to the condition of the teeth. But in medicine, the element is needed not only in the field of dentistry. Fluoride preparations are prescribed for problems with the thyroid gland, for example, Graves' disease. In the fight against it, the leading role is played by the couple fluorine-iodine.
Medicines with the 9th element are needed for those who have chronic diabetes. Glaucoma and cancer are also on the list of ailments that are treated with fluoride. How oxygen the substance is sometimes required for bronchial diseases and rheumatic diagnoses.
Fluorine extraction
Fluorine is mined all in the same way that helped to open the element. After a series of deaths, one of the scientists managed not only to survive, but also to release a small amount of yellowish gas. The laurels went to Henri Moissan. The Frenchman was awarded the Nobel Prize for his discovery. It was issued in 1906.
Moissan used the electrolysis method. To avoid being poisoned by the fumes, the chemist carried out the reaction in a steel electrifier. This device is still used today. It contains sour potassium fluoride.
The process takes place at a temperature of 100 degrees Celsius. The cathode is made of steel. The anode in the installation is carbon. It is important to maintain the tightness of the system, because fluorine vapor poisonous.
Laboratories purchase special plugs for tightness. Their composition: calcium fluorine. The laboratory setup consists of two copper vessels. The first one is filled with the melt, immersing the second one in it. The inner vessel has a hole in the bottom. A nickel anode passes through it.
The cathode is placed in the first vessel. Tubes extend from the device. Hydrogen is released from one, fluorine is released from the second. To maintain tightness, plugs and calcium fluoride alone are not enough. You also need lubrication. Its role is played by glycerin or oxide.
The laboratory method for obtaining the 9th element is used only for educational demonstrations. The technology has no practical application. However, its existence proves that it is possible to do without electrolysis. However, this is not necessary.
Fluorine price
There is no cost for fluoride as such. Prices are already set for products containing the 9th element of the periodic table. Toothpastes, for example, usually cost from 40 to 350 rubles. Medicines are also cheap and expensive. It all depends on the manufacturer and the availability of similar products from other companies on the market.
As for fluoride prices for health, it can apparently be high. The element is toxic. Handling it requires caution. Fluoride can be beneficial and even cure.
But for this you need to know a lot about the substance, predict its behavior and, of course, consult with specialists. Fluorine ranks 13th in terms of prevalence on Earth. The number itself, called the devil's dozen, forces you to be careful with the element.