§ 7. Russia as a multinational state
As the Russian population moved beyond its original range, Russia included not only new lands, but also new peoples. In the 16th century Ivan the Terrible addressed the peoples under the rule of the Tatar-Mongol khans with an invitation to accept Russian citizenship. The Bashkirs responded to this proposal of a petition to the Tsar (1552) and in 1557 they became part of Russia. In the first half of the 17th century. the transition of the Kalmyks to Russian citizenship began (in 1655 they took an oath to guard the Russian border in the south from the Crimean Tatars and Turks). During the same period, the peoples inhabiting eastern Siberia (Yakuts, Buryats, Khakass, etc.) became part of the Russian state; in the second half of the 17th - first half of the 18th centuries. - peoples of the northeast of Siberia and the Far East. Thus, already from the 16th century. Russia is becoming a multinational state.
The formation of a powerful centralized multinational state was of great importance for the peoples living on the borders of Russia (Ukrainians, Belarusians, Moldovans) and fighting against foreign invaders. In 1655, the Great Rada decided to reunite Left Bank Ukraine with Russia (Right Bank Ukraine, as well as Eastern Galicia, Transcarpathia and Northern Bukovina, would join later). In the 18th century Moldavian ruler Cantemir decided (1711) to come under Russian protectorate. Russia was forced to wage exhausting wars with the Turks and the Lithuanian-Polish state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, defending its interests in the lands of Ukrainians and Belarusians.
As a result of the Northern War (1700–1721), Russia opened a “window to Europe”, gaining access to the Baltic Sea and annexing the territories of Estonia, parts of Latvia and Karelia (with Vyborg). During the Russian-Swedish War (1808–1809), the Grand Duchy of Finland passed from Sweden to Russia, which had a special status within Russia and enjoyed political and legal autonomy. During the three divisions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795) between Austria, Prussia and Russia, the latter included Belarus, Right Bank and Western Ukraine (except Lvov), most of Lithuania and Courland.
In the second half of the 18th century. As a result of the Russian-Turkish wars, Crimea and the northern coasts of the Azov and Black Seas were ceded to Russia. Russia is increasing its influence on Northern Caucasus, where she is opposed by the Crimean khans, Türkiye and Iran. In the XVII–XVIII centuries. A number of mountain peoples accepted Russian citizenship: Kabardians, Karachais, Circassians, Ossetians (the latter, for the most part, later adopted Orthodoxy). In 1809, a number of peoples of Dagestan also accepted Russian citizenship. In the North Caucasus, the Cossacks become the support of the Russian state. The process of annexing the peoples of the North Caucasus did not take place without bloodshed and was associated mainly with military methods. During the Caucasian War (1817–1834), the entire North Caucasus was brought under Russian control. The emperor's viceroy in the Caucasus was in position superior to Russian ministers in his region and had the right to prevent the execution of their decisions in his region.
Transcaucasia was subjected to repeated divisions between Iran, Turkey, Byzantium, the Arab Caliphate and the Mongol-Tatar khans. The peoples of the region, primarily Christian, also sought protection from a strong Russia. As a result of the Russo-Iranian War (1828–1829), Eastern Armenia joined Russia. Based on the signing of the Treaty of Georgievsk (in 1783), Eastern Georgia turned to the Russian Tsar for help in the fight against Turkey and Persia, and later (in 1799) joined Russia. During the same period, ambassadors of the Azerbaijan Khanate were repeatedly sent to St. Petersburg with a request for annexation, which was granted in 1801, and by the end of 1806, most of the lands of the Azerbaijan Khanate became Russian territory.
In the mid-60s. XIX century Russia began active promotion of all Central Asian direction. By this time, there were three state formations here: the Bukhara Emirate, the Khiva and Kokand Khanates. The annexation of Kazakh lands to Russia (in 1846–1854) caused a military clash with the Kokand Khan. In 1865, the offensive of Russian troops ended with the capture of Tashkent, which became the center of the newly formed Turkestan General Government. In 1876, the Kokand Khanate became part of Russia, and Khiva and Bukhara retained their autonomy. The annexation of Central Asia ended in 1885 with the capture of the southernmost fortress - Kushka.
Thus, over the course of three centuries - from the 16th to the 19th - Russia emerged as a multinational state. In 1721, Peter I was given the title of emperor, and the Russian state became the Russian Empire.
National politics in the Russian Empire
National politics– a system of legislative, organizational and ideological measures taken by the state to regulate relationships between the peoples and ethnic groups of the country, aimed at realizing their national interests and resolving national contradictions in the sphere of interethnic relations.
An important task of a multinational state is to optimize interethnic and interfaith relations. A certain type of interethnic relations developed in the Russian Empire.
Firstly, more than 90% of the peoples and their territories voluntarily became part of the Russian state. Indeed, the entry into the Russian state of the peoples who inhabited the vast territories of Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia, Armenia, Kabarda, Kazakhstan, Altai, etc. was voluntary. Not a single people, even the smallest people, being part of the Russian Empire, physically disappeared, did not ceased to exist as an ethnic group. The main goal of the Russian Empire was not the religious and cultural assimilation of peoples, but the security of the state.
Secondly The Russian state was a single, territorially integral state. The entry of peoples into the large centralized Russian state as a whole had a progressive significance and created more favorable conditions for the socio-economic and cultural development of these peoples.
Third, essentially there was no economic robbery of the national borderlands. Russian settlers did not take land from the agricultural peoples of the Volga region, Transcaucasia, and Central Asia. The involvement of new territories into the orbit of a single all-Russian market, and through it into the sphere of the world economy, contributed to the economic and social development of the most remote outskirts, which, once in a powerful country, came into contact with peoples who had achieved higher socio-economic and cultural development.
Fourth, despite certain restrictions on ethnic grounds, in Russia there was no legally dominant nation and national oppression in favor of the Russians, there was no imperial nation and colonial peoples, as was the case between the Western metropolises and their colonies. Without denying the negative aspects associated with the actual situation of some national outskirts, one cannot help but see the obvious advantages that the peoples gained while being part of the Russian Empire.
The Russian Federation is a federal state
Federal State- a state-legal association that ensures the unity of all its constituent territorial units, enjoying a certain political and legal independence in the form of national-territorial autonomies.
National-territorial autonomy(NTA) is one of the forms of self-determination, which provides favorable opportunities for the economic, political and cultural development of peoples. The creation of NTA is based on the historically established boundaries of residence of one or two ethnic groups, distinguished by the uniqueness of their economy, culture, way of life, and traditions. Based on this, national-state and national-territorial entities are called by the name of self-identified ethnic groups acquiring the status titular ethnic groups.
After the October Revolution of 1917, the idea of the NTA became the basis of national policy in the Russian Federation. In order to ensure favorable conditions for the socio-economic and cultural development of nationalities, NTAs of various levels were created: autonomous republics, autonomous regions and national (autonomous) districts. According to the nature and scope of the powers of the NTA in the RSFSR, they were exercised in two forms: political And administrative.
After the collapse of the USSR and the proclamation of the sovereignty of the Russian Federation, changes occurred in its internal structure. All autonomous republics, autonomous regions and autonomous okrugs acquired the status of equal subjects. Currently, the process of incorporating a number of NTAs into large administrative-territorial units is underway.
Information sources
1. Alekseev N.N. Russian people and state. M., 2003.
2. Gladkiy Yu.N., Chistobaev A.I. Fundamentals of regional policy. St. Petersburg, 1998.
3. Kolosov V.A., Mironenko N.S. Geopolitics and political geography. M., 2001.
4. Kolosov V., Petrov N. and others. Subjects of the Federation: what they should be // Polis. 1994. No. 4.
5. National policy in the Russian Federation. M., 1993.
6. Fundamentals of national and federal relations / edited by. ed. R.G. Abdulatipova. M., 2001.
7. Formation of a new Russian statehood: reality and prospects / ed. Yu. Vedeneeva. M., 1996.
Questions and tasks
1. How did Russia become a multinational state? How did its geopolitical position change at different stages of Russian history?
2. What distinguished the national policy of the Russian Empire from the colonial policy of Western countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America?
3. What forms of state-territorial structure exist in the modern world?
From the book Russia and Europe author Danilevsky Nikolai Yakovlevich From the book Ancient India. Life, religion, culture by Michael Edwards From the book An Eye for an Eye [Ethics of the Old Testament] by Wright Christopher From the book Verboslov-2, or Notes of a Stunned Man author Maksimov Andrey Markovich From the book God Save the Russians! author Yastrebov Andrey Leonidovich From the book Russia: criticism of historical experience. Volume 1 author Akhiezer Alexander Samoilovich From the book Everyday Life of the Papal Court during the Borgia and Medici Times. 1420-1520 by Erce Jacques From the book Guiding Ideas of Russian Life author Tikhomirov Lev From the book History of Islam. Islamic civilization from birth to the present day author Hodgson Marshall Goodwin SimmsState When the state is governed in accordance with reason, poverty and want are shameful; when the state is not governed in accordance with reason, then wealth and honor are shameful. CONFUCIUS, Chinese philosopher How did the first states arise? It was a long time ago, no one
From the book How Grandma Ladoga and Father Veliky Novgorod forced the Khazar maiden Kyiv to be the mother of Russian cities author Averkov Stanislav IvanovichRussia of the rich. Russia of the poor Let's start with a proud toast: the Russian land is rich, abundant, fertile. A.K. Tolstoy does not object, but adheres to the following opinion: “Our land is rich, but there is no order.” Many Russians would like to subscribe to these lines. Wealth
From the author's bookLocal world and state In principle, authoritarian power, as it existed in ancient syncretic forms and in what Marx sometimes calls the Asian mode of production, was based on local local patriarchal communities,
From the author's bookLocalism and the state Localism has entered the final straight, driven by the desire to escape from totalitarianism, authoritarianism, from the highest centers of power, from statehood in general. The process was moving towards the atomization of society, towards endless disintegration into local worlds, into communities where
From the author's bookChapter I THE CHURCH STATE AND THE PRINCE STATE Rome on the European “chessboard” On Sunday, September 29, 1420, Martin V solemnly entered Rome. Elected on November 11, 1417 at the Church Council in Constance and henceforth the only Pope of Rome, he
The Russian state has historically been formed as a multinational state. At the time of its emergence, covering a small territory in the northeast of the Russian plain (in the 14th – first half of the 16th centuries, the southern border with the Mongol-Tatars passed 80-100 km from Moscow, in the west Smolensk and Kursk were the territory of Lithuania), the Russian state was constantly expanding . The unification of lands east of Moscow took place in the process of struggle against Mongol-Tatar rule. Moscow Rus', liberating itself, liberated other lands from conquerors, which had been inhabited since ancient times by various ethnic groups. As a result of the liberation struggle, the Russian state included many peoples who had long been connected with the Russian people by a common historical development: the peoples of the North and Volga region - part of the Mari, Meshchera, Yugra, Komi (at the end of the 14th century), Pechora, Karelians, Sami, Nenets, Udmurts (at the end of the 15th century).
In the 16th century Bashkirs were annexed to Russia. This happened after the capture of Kazan by Ivan the Terrible. He turned to the peoples enslaved by the Mongol-Tatars with a proposal to accept Russian citizenship. The Bashkirs responded to this proposal in 1552 by turning to the king with a petition. In 1557, after a repeated request, they became part of Russia.
In the middle of the 16th century. The Siberian, Kazan, and Astrakhan khanates that survived the collapse of the Golden Horde disturbed Russia with robberies; invasions did not stop, accompanied by murders and arson. In 1556, the Astrakhan Khanate recognized vassal dependence on the Russian state without resistance. As a result of stubborn struggle, the Kazan Khanate was also annexed to Russia. Thus, the Volga along its entire length - from its sources to its mouth - was included in Russia.
In the 16th century Siberia became the sphere of interests of the Moscow state. Its territory was inhabited by peoples who led a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle and professed paganism. There were fragments of the Mongol state that were vast in territory but militarily weak. In 1581, the Cossack squad of Ermak Timofeevich (by modern standards the detachment looked very modest: about 500 Cossacks and about 300 so-called military men) began moving to Siberia. Khan Kuchum, who had been annoying with his devastating raids, was finally defeated in 1598. The peoples and tribes of Western Siberia saw in the Russian state a force capable of protecting them from the nomads of Southern Siberia. In the first half of the 17th century. Russia included the peoples who inhabited Eastern Siberia: Yakuts, Buryats, Khakass, etc. Outlying territories in the south, east and northeast of Siberia became part of Russia in the second half of the 17th century, Kamchatka and the adjacent islands - at the very end XVII - first half of the XVIII century.
In just one century, Russian explorers covered the distance from the Urals to the Pacific Ocean, and Russia very quickly and firmly established itself in a new vast space. The explorers, and then the Russian administration, for the most part, easily established the necessary contacts with the peoples of Siberia and the Far East. That is why resistance to Russian migration was insignificant, and if conflicts arose at first, they were settled quickly and did not have far-reaching consequences. So the well-known expression “conquest of Siberia” is, rather, an emotional image that captures the development of vast expanses and a difficult natural environment, and not the subjugation of the ethnic groups living in these territories.
In the first years of the 17th century. the peaceful process of transition of Kalmyks to Russian citizenship began. The Russian state was interested in protecting its borders from the Crimean Tatars and Turks. In 1655, representatives of the Kalmyks took an oath of allegiance to the Russian government. In 1657 this oath was confirmed. In 1661, citizenship was secured by signatures. The entry of the Kalmyks into Russia was thus based on a written agreement concluded voluntarily, taking into account mutual interests.
In the 17th century Russia included a small part of the North Caucasus and the regions of the Don and Yaitsky Cossack troops.
The formation of the Russian centralized state was important for the peoples of Ukraine, Belarus, and Moldova, who were guided by Russia in the struggle against foreign enslavers. In 1654, the Great Rada (council) was held in Pereyaslavl, which decided to reunite Left Bank Ukraine with Russia. The Right Bank was reunited later - at the end of the 18th century. But even after this, part of the Ukrainian lands (Eastern Galicia, Northern Bukovina, Transcarpathia) remained part of the states neighboring Russia.
Moldavia, enslaved by Turkey, also sought help from Russia. In the 17th century Moldovan rulers several times turned to the Russian government with a request to accept Moldova “under the royal hand”, into Russian citizenship. In 1711, Peter I concluded an agreement with the Moldavian ruler Cantemir, which established the Russian protectorate over Moldova.
In the second half of the 17th century. Russia began a grueling struggle with the Lithuanian-Polish state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as well as Crimea and Turkey in support of the desire of the Belarusian lands and Right-Bank Ukraine for reunification with Russia. Lithuanian-Polish troops fought desperately for Belarusian and Ukrainian lands. At the instigation of Turkey, Crimean troops invaded the territory of Ukraine. Russia has been fighting for the security and strength of its borders for more than a century, simultaneously protecting Belarusian and Ukrainian lands. As a result of this struggle, only on July 3, 1700, the humiliating tribute to the Crimean Khan for Russia was canceled.
Throughout the 18th century. The Russian government is intensifying its policy in the North Caucasus. The Crimean khans, Türkiye, Iran, and Russia fought for influence in the North Caucasus. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. some mountain peoples accepted Russian citizenship. Russia included Kabarda, Karachay-Cherkessia and Ossetia. However, in general, the process of annexing the North Caucasus was complex and contradictory, mainly through military methods, and was lengthy.
The Kazakh people, constantly experiencing attacks from their eastern and southern neighbors, sought the protection of Russia. Abdulzhair, who was elected leader at a meeting of three zhuzes, having fought off another invasion from Dzungaria, turned to the Russian government with a request to accept the Kazakhs into Russian citizenship. On October 10, 1731, Abdulzhair and the elders of the Junior Zhuz took the oath to the Russian government. In December of the same year, the Khan of the Middle Zhuz, Semeke, accepted Russian citizenship. In 1740, Khan Abdulmambet and Sultan Ablai took the oath. The senior zhuz, which had been under the domination of Dzungaria for a long time, joined Russia in the first half of the 19th century.
The territory of the eastern Baltic changed hands from Germany, Poland, Lithuania, Sweden, and Denmark. Northern War 1700-1721 opened access to the Baltic Sea for Russia and ensured its economic maritime ties with other countries of the world. As a result of victories in the Northern War, Estonia, parts of Latvia and Karelia with Vyborg came under Russian rule. During the Russian-Swedish war of 1808-1809. The Grand Duchy of Finland, which had previously been part of Sweden, was annexed.
As a result of the three divisions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795), carried out by three powers - Russia, Austria and Prussia - Belarus, Right Bank and Western Ukraine (without Lvov), most of Lithuania and Courland were included in the Russian state. Thus, the reunification of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands took place. Sitting in 1814-1815. The Congress of Vienna transferred the Duchy of Warsaw (Kingdom of Poland) to Russia.
In the second half of the 18th century. as a result of the wars with Turkey (1774,1783,1791), Crimea and the northern shores of the Black and Azov Seas were ceded to Russia. According to the 1791 treaty between Russia and Turkey, the territory between the Bug and the Dniester became part of Russia, and as a result of the Russian-Turkish war of 1806-1812. According to the Treaty of Bucharest, Bessarabia was also liberated from Turkish rule. The annexation of Bessarabia to Russia contributed to the faster development of the economy of this region and the culture of the Moldovan people.
For centuries, Transcaucasia was subjected to destructive wars, seizures and divisions of territory. Thus, feudal Armenia was repeatedly divided by Iran, Byzantium and Turkey, conquered by the Arab Caliphate and Mongol-Tatar hordes. Having lost hope of achieving independence on their own, the Armenian society decided to ask for outside help. Based on this, the Armenian envoy Ori decided to turn to Russia in mid-1701. Peter I did not deny the need for help to Armenia, but Russia’s hands were tied by the war with Sweden. Only after the Russian-Iranian war of 1828-1829. Eastern Armenia joined Russia.
The territory of Azerbaijan was also the scene of numerous bloody wars. It was also at various times under the rule of the Arab Caliphate, Turkey, the Mongol-Tatars, and Iran. In the 18th century Ambassadors were repeatedly sent to St. Petersburg with a request to accept the Azerbaijan Khanate into Russia. The entry of Azerbaijani lands into Russia began in 1801. By the end of 1806, most of the Azerbaijani khanates were annexed.
In 1783, on the basis of the Treaty of Georgievsk, Eastern Georgia formally came under the protection of Russia. This treaty displeased Turkey, and Persia devastated Eastern Georgia and intensified its policy in Transcaucasia. Persian aggression forced Christian peoples to seek protection from Russia. In 1799, Eastern Georgia again turned to Russia for help. By 1810, most of Transcaucasia was included in Russia. Turkey retained the Yerevan and Nakhichevan khanates, as well as Western Georgia.
In 1809, a number of societies in Dagestan voluntarily accepted Russian citizenship. The oath of Russia was re-taken in Ossetia and Ingushetia. The North Caucasus, south of the Kuban and Terek rivers, turned out to be an independent island surrounded by the territory of the Russian state. In 1816, General A.P. Ermolov was appointed governor of the Caucasus, who pursued a policy of strengthening Russia’s position in the Caucasus. During the Caucasian War (1817-1864), the North Caucasus was brought under the control of the tsarist government. As a result of the wars with Persia and Turkey, Western Georgia, the Nakhichevan and Yerevan khanates were annexed.
Since the mid-60s. XIX century Russia began to actively advance in the Central Asian direction. Here, on the basis of the settled population, there were 3 state formations based on the principles of citizenship - the Bukhara Emirate, the Khiva and Kokand Khanates. Annexation of Kazakh lands to Russia in 1846-1854. (Senior Zhuz) caused a military clash with the Kokand Khan, whose army was defeated by the troops of V. A. Perovsky. In 1865, the offensive of Russian troops ended with the capture of Tashkent, which became the center of the newly formed Turkestan Governor-General. In 1868, the Khanate of Kokand and the Emirate of Bukhara recognized their dependence on Russia, and in 1873, the Khanate of Khiva. In 1876, the Kokand Khanate became part of Russia, and Khiva and Bukhara retained their autonomy. The annexation of Central Asia ended in 1885 with the capture of the southernmost fortress - Kushka.
Thus, over three centuries - from the 16th to the 19th centuries. – Russia was formed as a multinational state. In 1721, Peter I was given the title of emperor, and the Russian state became the Russian Empire. However, it did not become a colonial empire: there was no division into the metropolis and colonies. The colonial stage of expansion, characteristic of Western European colonies, aimed at the enslavement and exploitation of other peoples, did not develop in Russia. New lands were included in a single state, and the peoples living in these territories retained their identity, ethnic and religious features.
Questions for self-study.
1. Make a chronological table of the stages of the crisis of the central government of the USSR.
2. Why, as the power of the Center weakened, did interethnic conflicts increase in the USSR?
3. What measures were taken by the country’s leadership to solve the problem of interethnic conflicts? Assess the effectiveness of these measures.
4. How is the deterioration of the economic situation in the USSR connected with the growth of interethnic conflicts? Justify your point of view.
5. What provision of the “Declaration of State Sovereignty of Russia” “launched” centrifugal processes?
7. Try to explain why during the referendum on the preservation of the USSR, the majority of those who voted were in favor of this preservation. How does this relate to the collapse of the Union taking place at the same time?
8. What were the results of national conflicts in the USSR during the perestroika period? Present your analysis in table form.
9. Who and why created the State Emergency Committee? Was the victory of the Emergency Committee possible?
10. Based on additional statistical information, evaluate whether the collapse of the USSR was inevitable. Justify your point of view. Give reasons for the selected evaluation criteria. Write a resume.
11. Find examples in modern scientific and journalistic literature illustrating conflicts on interethnic grounds in the USSR until the 90s. Make a presentation.
14. Make a collection (digest) of fragments of journalistic articles on the problem of confrontation with M.S. Gorbachev and B.N. Yeltsin.
15. What are the personal and political qualities of M.S. Gorbachev and B.N. Yeltsin played a role in the development of events in 1990 - 1991?
16. Consider the historical situation. Finish the article. Draw a conclusion.
Perestroika exposed the long-hidden contradictions of the Soviet system, including the unresolved national question and its new aggravation...
17. Fill out the table.
| Positive points | Contradictions, difficulties, negativity |
18. Work with the press of the specified period. Compile a chronicle of the events of interethnic clashes.
19. Refute or confirm the proposed point of view. Give reasons for your answer. Have your say.
At the turn of the 80-90s. The collapse of the USSR actually began. The Union Center, led by Gorbachev, did not have a clear program of action and was losing control levers. In many union republics, separatists gained the upper hand. The last attempt to save the Union was the preparation of a new Union Treaty. Its signing was scheduled for August 20.
20. Propose your version of the draft Union Treaty.
1) adoption of Declarations of Sovereignty of Georgia, Estonia, Lithuania
2) “Novoogaryovsky process”
3) Signing of the Belovezhskaya Agreements on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States by Russia, Ukraine and Belarus.
4) interethnic conflict among Uzbeks and Meskhetian Turks in Fergana (Uzbekistan)
In June 1990, in Moscow, at the First Congress of People's Deputies of Russia,
1) USSR formation of the CIS
2) the post of President was abolished
3) adoption of the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the RSFSR
4) signing of the Declaration of Independence of the Latvian SSR
What was the name of the popular front created in Lithuania?
1) "Solidarity"
2) Zalgiris
3) "Sajudis"
4) Democratic platform
Which event falls out of the logical series?
1) formation of the CIS
2) signing of the Declaration of Independence of the Latvian SSR
3) Dissolution of the Warsaw Pact Organization.
4) adoption of the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the RSFSR
The USSR as a state was liquidated by decision
1) Referendum
2) Supreme Council
3) Belovezhskaya Troika (B.N. Yeltsin, L.M. Kravchuk, S.S. Shushkevich)
4) V Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR
The Belovezhskaya Agreement between the leaders of three republics (Russia, Ukraine, Belarus) on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States was concluded
The first countries to form the CIS were
1) Russia, Ukraine, Belarus
2) Russia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan
3) Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan
4) Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan
Part C (for options 1 and 2)
Fill the table. The results of the existence of the multinational USSR
| Positive points | Contradictions, difficulties, negativity |
Practical work No. 6
Political crisis of the early 90s
Target: summarize knowledge on the topic, repeat concepts and facts related to the topic, apply knowledge on the topic while solving practical tasks.
Option #1
Part A
1. How, with the help of reforms, were the USSR supposed to move to a regulated market economy?
2. Restore the chronology of events that occurred in Russia in the second half of 1991. Fill in the blanks.
“Election of B.N. Yeltsin as President of Russia in 1) …… finally formalized the situation of “dual-centeredness” of power in the person of the Union and Russian bodies. When 7 of the 15 union republics refused to take part in the signing of the new Union Treaty, planned 2) …….. , the conservative part of the party apparatus decided to openly speak out. 3)…….., In the absence of the President of the USSR, a group of party and state leaders, including the vice president, prime minister and all power ministers, announced a change in the political course in the country in order to prevent the collapse of the USSR, protect the ideals of socialism and save the country from economic disaster. Educated by them 4)……… announced that due to the “illness” of M.S. Gorbachev and the impossibility of him fulfilling the duties of President of the USSR, the committee takes full power into its own hands.
The main events unfolded 5) …….... when a state of emergency was declared, and troops and armored vehicles appeared on the streets of the capital.
However, the new leaders of Russia vigorously opposed the resulting State Emergency Committee: 6) ……….. (at least 3 names).
The “White House”, where the Supreme Council of Russia met, was surrounded by barricades and a human ring of thousands of people ready to repel the attack of government troops. Relying on the massive support of the population, B. Yeltsin declared the “junta” overthrown and the activities of the CPSU suspended throughout the country. The indecisiveness of the members of the State Emergency Committee, the lack of coordination of their actions, and most importantly, the active democratic position of the population indicated the complete failure of the putsch within two days. Returned from isolation in Crimea 7) ……… found himself forced to confirm the decrees of the President of Russia.
The forceful action of supporters of communist statehood pushed the majority of the republics away from the union center. The union was disintegrating literally before our eyes. After 8)………. Ukraine declared its state independence, the process of disintegration became irreversible.
9) …….. the leaders of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus announced the termination of the 1922 Union Treaty on the formation of the USSR and proclaimed the creation 10)………….. from three Slavic republics. Soon, most of the former republics of the Union joined the Commonwealth.
In the modern world there are more than three thousand different ethnic units, and there are just over two hundred states. This means that, with some exceptions, the majority are multinational countries.
Terms and concepts
In order to understand the issue in detail, it is necessary to highlight the key concepts that researchers use when studying a particular country. Concepts such as are quite close in meaning, but at the same time have certain nuances. It is quite clear that all these terms are the result of the historical complication of various elements that characterize a particular ethnic community. Economic development and expansion of territory led to an increase in the area of residence of the tribe, which gradually turned into a nationality or people. And as the highest stage of an ethnic unit, the formation and emergence of a nation can be distinguished. Many scientists agree that the determining factors in the formation of this community are one language, territory, culture and economic ties. However, as a nation develops, these factors lose their primary importance, and it can continue to exist even when divided
Formation of national identity
Indeed, to confirm this statement, one can turn to the example of such a multinational giant as the USSR. Many nations that existed within this state, after its collapse, found themselves on different sides of the borders, but did not lose their identification. Therefore, having been formed once, they continue to exist, except for cases of physical disappearance. Language as one of the fundamental characteristics of a nation may cease to be so. As the number of people increased, the role of kinship decreased, and it could happen that two or more languages appeared in one nation. When former ethnic groups were united into increasingly numerous ones, variations of languages (dialects) were preserved, sometimes differing quite strongly from the former single language. The most striking example is the Swiss Confederation. The multinational countries of Europe were formed approximately along this path. However, not only European countries followed this path of development of national relations. The multinational countries of Asia also could not immediately form as full-fledged multiethnic entities. A series of revolutions and other metamorphoses led them to the need for coexistence, and one of the many Asian states - China - was also formed according to this principle.
Different interpretations of the concept "nation"
When using the term “nation”, one must keep in mind its dual meaning. Firstly, scientists consider it as a collection of citizens of a particular state. That is, it is a multicultural, socio-political, territorial and economic community of representatives of different nationalities that form the state. In the second case, this definition is used as a designation of the highest form of ethnic unity. Multinational countries formed according to the first scenario in the modern geopolitical world make up more than half of all state entities. The most typical example is the American nation. For many centuries, the United States has been called a “melting pot” that successfully dissolved the ethnic diversity of American citizens, turning them into a single nation. This course of events was dictated by historical realities, the emerging industrial type of society made strict demands, primarily of an economic nature, and many nationalities had to unite in order to successfully compete in the international arena. This is how the multinational countries of the world took shape.
Russian style integration
The globalization of the economy has influenced the ways in which state-national entities integrate. Dynamically developing production has led to the formation of new options for interethnic cooperation. The USA and the Russian Federation are multinational countries; both of them are federations by their structure. However, the methods of their organization are fundamentally different. The Russian Federation is built on the national-state principle of its constituent entities. They have a certain independence in internal affairs and jointly represent the Russian nation.
An alternative path to national cooperation
American states also have a certain internal autonomy, but are formed on a territorial basis. Russia, in this way of organization, guarantees the development of the peoples inhabiting it. The United States of America, on the basis of democratic laws, also secures the right of each ethnic unit to national and cultural independence. These two types of government associations are represented throughout the globe.
Globalization and nations
The entry of the world into the information age has further intensified interstate competition, and, accordingly, interethnic competition. Therefore, the main trend is the birth of supranational state entities. They are formed on the principle of a confederation and have great national and cultural diversity. The most typical example is the European Union, which includes more than twenty countries and whose inhabitants speak, according to a rough estimate, 40 languages. The structure of this association is as close as possible to the existing economic and political realities. Its territory has a common legal system, currency, and citizenship. If you look closely at these signs, you can conclude that a European supernation has practically emerged. The number of new EU members is growing. Similar processes, but with a lesser degree of cooperation, are taking place all over the world. The initial economic and political blocs are prototypes of future supernations. It seems that the future of all human civilization lies precisely in such large state-national formations.
National politics
The guarantor of the preservation of unity is in states united into multinational countries. The list of these countries is quite extensive and includes the overwhelming number of government entities located on our planet. National policy includes a set of measures to ensure the equal existence and development of ethnic units of the state. The most multinational country in the world - India - is an example of this. Only a balanced and cautious policy of this country allows it to be a leader and successfully compete with its giant neighbor China.
Modern trends in interethnic relations
It is the legislative consolidation of rights that serves as the binding “solution” for these countries. The development paths of nationalities and states did not always coincide. History shows many similar examples. Multinational countries are most susceptible to collapse precisely because of their multiethnicity. The twentieth century saw the collapse of many such states: the USSR, Yugoslavia, and even binational Czechoslovakia. Therefore, maintaining parity of nationalities becomes the basis for cooperation and integration. Over the past two decades, the process of separatism has become somewhat biased; this also applies to established European states, such as, for example, Great Britain, from which Scotland announced its intention to secede, as well as the states of Asia and Africa artificially created as a result of colonial policy.