20th century historical events. History of Russia XX century

We have been living in the twenty-first century for more than 10 years now, and almost no one thinks about why we are equipped with everything that makes our life easier and more comfortable. Why is current science and society so developed, where did all this come from? The answer to this question is very simple - the entire revolution and the construction of modern society, discoveries that made it possible to soar almost to the heights of science, occurred over the course of a hundred years.

One hundred years of the 20th century, a rather long and sometimes terrible time. Sometimes, without knowing, people ask: 20th century, what years are these? But when ignorant people answer: the 20th century began in 1900 and ended in 1999, they are mistaken. In fact, the 20th century began on January 1, 1901, and ended on December 31, 2000. Let's start with a classification of the main concepts and events of the 20th century.

Chronology

• Industrialization is the development of new technologies in the production process. The quality and efficiency of enterprises, the quantity of produced raw materials are improving, there are fewer accidents and industrial accidents, and the abandonment of manufactories. Enterprises are beginning to operate at a completely new level, increasing not only the quality of life of the population, but also the amount of profit for states.
• First World War - (1914 - 1918). One of the most large-scale military conflicts in the entire history of mankind. The result of the war was the end of the existence of four empires - Austro-Hungarian, German, Russian and Ottoman. The countries that took part in the battles lost over 22 million people.
• The creation of the USSR took place in 1922, when one of the most majestic powers that ever existed was born, which covered the vast territory of 15 modern states.
• The Great Depression was a worldwide economic crisis that began in 1929 and ended in 1939. Industrial cities were hit the hardest; construction in some countries virtually stopped.
• The construction of authoritarian and totalitarian regimes is the construction by some states of regimes leading to complete totalitarian control over the population, truncation of human rights, and genocide.
• The world saw revolutionary drugs - penicillin and sulfonamides, antibiotics, vaccines against polio, typhus, whooping cough, and diphtheria were invented. All of these drugs have dramatically reduced the number of deaths from various infectious diseases.
• The Holodomor of 1932-1933 was an artificial genocide of the Ukrainian people, which Joseph Stalin provoked with his repressions. It claimed the lives of about 4 million people.
• If you ask any person what the 20th century was like, you can quickly get the answer - a century of wars and bloodshed. In 1939, World War II began, which became the largest war in the history of mankind. More than 60 states, about 80% of the planet's population, took part in it. 65 million people died.
• The creation of the UN - an organization that strengthens peace and prevents wars, to this day
• Decolonization - the liberation of a number of countries from colonial invaders, at that time powerful countries weakened by the Second World War.
• The scientific and technological revolution is the transformation of science into a productive force, during which the role of information in society has grown.
• Atomic era - the beginning of the use of nuclear weapons, nuclear reactions as a source of electricity.
• Conquest of space - flights to Mars, Venus, the Moon.
• Mass motorization and the use of jet aircraft as civilian ones.
• Massive use of antidepressants and contraceptives.
• The Cold War between the giant countries - the USA and the USSR.
• Creation of the NATO bloc.
• Collapse of the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Bloc.
• Spread of international terrorism.
• The development of communication and information technologies, radio, telephones, the Internet and television are widely used.
• Creation of the European Union.

What are the most famous writers of the 20th century?

What are the most impressive achievements of the 20th century?

Definitely, revolutionary inventions can be called achievements, among which the most impressive were:

• Airplane (1903).
• Steam turbine (1904).
• Superconductivity (1912).
• Television (1925).
• Antibiotics (1940).
• Computer (1941).
• Nuclear Power Plant (1954).
• Sputnik (1957).
• Internet (1969).
• Mobile Phone (1983).
• Cloning (1997).

XX, what century is this? First of all, this is the century of scientific progress, the formation of many states, the destruction of Nazism, and everything that helps us move forward into the future, without forgetting the past, which has become the determining factor in our development.

The history of the 20th century was full of events of a very different nature - there were both great discoveries and great disasters. States were created and destroyed, and revolutions and civil wars forced people to leave their homes in order to go to foreign lands, but save their lives at the same time. In art, the twentieth century also left an indelible mark, completely updating it and creating completely new directions and schools. There were great achievements in science as well.

World history of the 20th century

The 20th century began for Europe with very sad events - the Russo-Japanese War happened, and in Russia in 1905 the first revolution, albeit one that ended in failure, took place. This was the first war in the history of the 20th century in which weapons such as destroyers, battleships and heavy long-range artillery were used.

The Russian Empire lost this war and suffered colossal human, financial and territorial losses. However, the Russian government decided to enter into peace negotiations only when more than two billion rubles in gold were spent from the treasury on the war - a fantastic amount even today, but in those days simply unthinkable.

In the context of global history, this war was just another clash of colonial powers in the struggle for the territory of a weakened neighbor, and the role of the victim fell to the weakening Chinese Empire.

Russian Revolution and its consequences

One of the most significant events of the 20th century, of course, was the February and October revolutions. The fall of the monarchy in Russia caused a whole series of unexpected and incredibly powerful events. The liquidation of the empire was followed by the defeat of Russia in the First World War, the separation from it of such countries as Poland, Finland, Ukraine and the countries of the Caucasus.

For Europe, the revolution and the subsequent Civil War also did not pass without a trace. The Ottoman Empire, liquidated in 1922, and the German Empire in 1918 also ceased to exist. The Austro-Hungarian Empire lasted until 1918 and broke up into several independent states.

However, within Russia, calm did not come immediately after the revolution. The civil war lasted until 1922 and ended with the creation of the USSR, the collapse of which in 1991 would be another important event.

World War I

This war was the first so-called trench warfare, in which a huge amount of time was spent not so much on moving troops forward and capturing cities, but on meaningless waiting in the trenches.

In addition, artillery was used en masse, chemical weapons were used for the first time, and gas masks were invented. Another important feature was the use of combat aviation, the formation of which actually took place during the fighting, although aviator schools were created several years before it began. Along with aviation, forces were created that were supposed to fight it. This is how the air defense troops appeared.

Developments in information and communications technology have also found their way onto the battlefield. Information began to be transmitted from headquarters to the front tens of times faster thanks to the construction of telegraph lines.

But not only the development of material culture and technology was affected by this terrible war. There was also a place for it in art. The twentieth century was a turning point for culture when many old forms were rejected and new ones replaced them.

Arts and literature

Culture on the eve of the First World War was experiencing an unprecedented rise, which resulted in the creation of a variety of movements both in literature and in painting, sculpture and cinema.

Perhaps the brightest and one of the most well-known artistic movements in art was futurism. Under this name it is customary to unite a number of movements in literature, painting, sculpture and cinema, which trace their genealogy to the famous manifesto of Futurism, written by the Italian poet Marinetti.

Futurism became most widespread, along with Italy, in Russia, where such literary communities of futurists as “Gilea” and OBERIU appeared, the largest representatives of which were Khlebnikov, Mayakovsky, Kharms, Severyanin and Zabolotsky.

As for the fine arts, pictorial futurism had Fauvism as its foundation, while also borrowing a lot from the then popular cubism, which was born in France at the beginning of the century. In the 20th century, the history of art and politics are inextricably linked, as many avant-garde writers, painters and filmmakers drew up their own plans for the reconstruction of the society of the future.

The Second World War

The history of the 20th century cannot be complete without a story about the most catastrophic event - the Second World War, which began a year ago and lasted until September 2, 1945. All the horrors that accompanied the war left an indelible mark in the memory of mankind.

Russia in the 20th century, like other European countries, experienced many terrible events, but none of them can compare in their consequences with the Great Patriotic War, which was part of the Second World War. According to various sources, the number of war victims in the USSR reached twenty million people. This number includes both military and civilian residents of the country, as well as numerous victims of the siege of Leningrad.

Cold War with Former Allies

Sixty-two sovereign states out of seventy-three that existed at that time were drawn into hostilities on the fronts of the World War. The fighting took place in Africa, Europe, the Middle East and Asia, the Caucasus and the Atlantic Ocean, as well as the Arctic Circle.

The Second World War and the Cold War followed one another. Yesterday's allies became first rivals, and later enemies. Crises and conflicts followed one after another for several decades, until the Soviet Union ceased to exist, thereby putting an end to the competition between the two systems - capitalist and socialist.

Cultural Revolution in China

If we tell the history of the twentieth century in terms of national history, it can sound like a long list of wars, revolutions and endless violence, often inflicted on completely random people.

By the mid-sixties, when the world had not yet fully comprehended the consequences of the October Revolution and the Civil War in Russia, another revolution unfolded at the other end of the continent, which went down in history under the name of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution.

The cause of the Cultural Revolution in the PRC is considered to be an internal party split and Mao’s fear of losing his dominant position within the party hierarchy. As a result, it was decided to begin an active struggle against those party representatives who were supporters of small property and private initiative. All of them were accused of counter-revolutionary propaganda and were either shot or sent to prison. Thus began mass terror that lasted more than ten years and the cult of personality of Mao Zedong.

Space Race

Space exploration was one of the most popular trends in the twentieth century. Although today people have become accustomed to international cooperation in the field of high technology and space exploration, at that time space was an arena of intense confrontation and fierce competition.

The first frontier for which the two superpowers fought was near-Earth orbit. By the early fifties, both the USA and the USSR had samples of rocket technology that served as prototypes for launch vehicles of a later time.

Despite all the speed with which they worked, Soviet rocket scientists were the first to put the cargo into orbit, and on October 4, 1957, the first man-made satellite appeared in Earth orbit, which made 1440 orbits around the planet, and then burned up in the dense layers of the atmosphere.

Also, Soviet engineers were the first to launch the first living creature into orbit - a dog, and later a person. In April 1961, a rocket launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, in the cargo compartment of which there was the Vostok-1 spacecraft, in which Yuri Gagarin was. The event of launching the first man into space was risky.

In the conditions of the race, space exploration could cost an astronaut his life, since in a hurry to get ahead of the Americans, Russian engineers made a number of decisions that were quite risky from a technical point of view. However, both takeoff and landing were successful. So the USSR won the next stage of the competition, called the Space Race.

Flights to the Moon

Having lost the first few stages in space exploration, American politicians and scientists decided to set themselves a more ambitious and difficult task, for which the Soviet Union might simply not have had enough resources and technical developments.

The next milestone that needed to be taken was the flight to the Moon - the natural satellite of the Earth. The project, called Apollo, was initiated in 1961 and aimed to carry out a manned expedition to the Moon and land a man on its surface.

No matter how ambitious this task seemed at the time the project began, it was solved in 1969 with the landing of Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin. In total, six manned flights to the earth's satellite were made as part of the program.

Defeat of the socialist camp

The Cold War, as we know, ended in the defeat of the socialist countries not only in the arms race, but also in economic competition. There is a consensus among most leading economists that the main reasons for the collapse of the USSR and the entire socialist camp were economic.

Despite the fact that in some countries there is widespread resentment regarding the events of the late eighties and early nineties, for most countries in Eastern and Central Europe the liberation from Soviet domination turned out to be extremely favorable.

The list of the most important events of the 20th century invariably contains a line mentioning the fall of the Berlin Wall, which served as a physical symbol of the division of the world into two hostile camps. The date of the collapse of this symbol of totalitarianism is considered to be November 9, 1989.

Technological progress in the 20th century

The twentieth century was rich in inventions; never before had technological progress progressed at such a speed. Hundreds of very significant inventions and discoveries have been made over a hundred years, but a few of them are worthy of special mention because of their extreme importance for the development of human civilization.

One of the inventions without which modern life is unthinkable is, of course, the airplane. Despite the fact that people have dreamed of flight for many millennia, the first flight in human history was accomplished only in 1903. This achievement, fantastic in its consequences, belongs to the brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright.

Another important invention related to aviation was the backpack parachute, designed by St. Petersburg engineer Gleb Kotelnikov. It was Kotelnikov who received a patent for his invention in 1912. Also in 1910, the first seaplane was designed.

But perhaps the most terrible invention of the twentieth century was the nuclear bomb, the single use of which plunged humanity into horror that has not passed to this day.

Medicine in the 20th century

The technology of artificial production of penicillin is also considered one of the main inventions of the 20th century, thanks to which humanity was able to get rid of many infectious diseases. The scientist who discovered the bactericidal properties of the fungus was Alexander Fleming.

All advances in medicine in the twentieth century were inextricably linked with the development of such fields of knowledge as physics and chemistry. After all, without the achievements of fundamental physics, chemistry or biology, the invention of the X-ray machine, chemotherapy, radiation and vitamin therapy would have been impossible.

In the 21st century, medicine is even more closely connected with high-tech branches of science and industry, which opens up truly fascinating prospects in the fight against diseases such as cancer, HIV and many other intractable diseases. It is worth noting that the discovery of the DNA helix and its subsequent decoding also allows us to hope for the possibility of curing inherited diseases.

After the USSR

Russia in the 20th century experienced many disasters, including wars, including civil ones, the collapse of the country and revolutions. At the end of the century, another extremely important event happened - the Soviet Union ceased to exist, and in its place sovereign states were formed, some of which plunged into civil war or war with their neighbors, and some, like the Baltic countries, rather quickly joined the European Union and began building an effective democratic state.

ABSTRACT

on the course “History of Russia”

on the topic: “Russia at the beginning of the 20th century”

1. Economic development of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.

The reforms of Alexander I gave scope for the development of the economy. The state took the initiative in the development of industry, transferring the forms of organizing economic life tested in other countries to Russian soil. All attention, funds and resources were concentrated on solving economic problems.

The state, while not acting as a direct conductor of bourgeois interests, nevertheless “opened the floodgates” for the accelerated development of capitalist relations. Despite the serious social costs (frequent abuses, dishonesty, and arbitrariness of factory owners caused sharp discontent among workers), the road to capitalism was opened by the reforms of the 60s and 70s of the 19th century.

Shifts in the economy were accompanied by changes in the social structure of society: the classes of the bourgeoisie and wage workers grew in number, and the imprint of capitalist relations fell on all social strata of society.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, the growth of the Russian national economy led to an increase in social wealth and well-being of the population. During 1894-1914, the country's state budget increased by 5.5 times, and its gold reserves by 3.7 times. At the same time, government revenues grew without the slightest increase in the tax burden. Direct taxes in Russia were 4 times less than in France and Germany, and 8.5 times less than in England; indirect taxes are on average half as much as in Austria, Germany and England. Significant sums from the budget were allocated for the development of culture and education. The well-being of the population was reflected in the increase in its numbers, which had no equal in Europe. Many domestic economists and politicians argued that maintaining the development trends that existed in 1900-1914 would inevitably, within 20-30 years, lead Russia to the place of a world leader, give it the opportunity to dominate Europe, exceed the economic potential of all European powers combined . Such prospects dismayed Western politicians.

At the beginning of the 20th century. In Russia there is a powerful growth of the factory industry. New industries have emerged. The economic and territorial specialization of various regions was clearly defined.

The government sought to accelerate the industrialization of the country, but it was extremely difficult to ensure its successful progress only through centralized methods. In a number of industries, these methods gave good results (military industry, railway and water transport, and some others), but in many areas of the economy, development could not be dynamic without the use of private initiative. The proportion between centralism in economic management and private entrepreneurship was seen differently by different representatives of the governing layer of the state. K.P. Pobedonostsev, V.K. Plehve and others, affirming the idea that capitalism has no prospects in Russia, believed that it would “fit” into the system of traditional spiritual values ​​of the Russian people.

Group V.K. Plehve opposed S.Yu. Witte, who sought to link the principle of traditionalism with the principle of realism, to modernize the political and economic structure of Russia, thereby strengthening the monarchical system.

Having taken the post of Minister of Finance, Witte continued the course of industrialization of the country pursued by his predecessors I.X. Bunte and I.A. Vyshnegradsky. Witte's tactics involved the use of all means and methods to solve strategic problems - from strict regulation from above to complete freedom of private initiative, from protectionism to attracting foreign capital.

The stabilization of the internal situation after the revolution was associated with the name of P.A. Stolypin, who became head of government in 1906.

The main work of P.A.’s life Stolypin was land reform. It included the following measures: 1. Decree on the release of peasants from redemption payments and emancipation from communal dependence, according to to which everyone could leave the community and receive land from the community fund into their own possession (that is, freedom to choose the forms of peasant labor and property was guaranteed). 2. A law that provided peasants with the opportunity to settle on farms and own land as hereditary property. 3. Creation of a land fund from state and imperial lands to provide land to all peasants who need it. 4. Granting peasants the right to buy the land of landowners. 5. Allocation of state interest-free loans to peasants for the purchase of land. 6. Activation of the work of the peasant bank, whose task, in addition to subsidizing landowners, was to regulate land use, providing barriers to monopolism and land speculation. 7. Organization of the resettlement business: state assistance to settlers with transport, loans for the construction of houses, purchase of cars, livestock and household property, preliminary land development of sites for settlers (hundreds of thousands of peasants moved from the central regions to Siberia, Kazakhstan and Central Asia, where there was a huge free land fund 8. Organization in rural areas of road construction, cooperative activities, insurance coverage, medical and veterinary care, agronomic consultation, construction of schools and rural churches.

As a result of these measures, sustainable and highly developed agriculture was created in Russia. Productivity for 1906–1914 increased by 14%. Soon after the start of the reforms, the surplus of free grain began to amount to hundreds of millions of poods, and foreign exchange earnings associated with the export of grain increased sharply.

At the beginning of the 20th century. In Russia, the marketability of agricultural production has noticeably increased, merchant capital has sharply increased its turnover. The credit system and banking developed rapidly.

During the reforms, Witte carried out a monetary reform, approving gold circulation; established a state monopoly on the sale of vodka, increasing the flow of funds into the treasury; significantly increased the scale of lending to growing industry; widely attracted foreign loans and investments into the Russian economy; implemented a program of customs protection of domestic entrepreneurship. Witte paid a lot of attention to railway construction. The creation of a developed transport network connected the country into a single market and stimulated the development of all branches of production. Witte made a significant personal contribution to the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway.

2. Socio-political system and social movement in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the confrontation between the tsarist government and the radical opposition intensified in Russia. The conflict between the government and the revolutionary underground took place against the backdrop of loyalty to the government on the part of the liberal intelligentsia and the broad masses (Cossacks, townspeople, peasantry - especially in regions that did not know serfdom).

The revolutionaries managed to raise a mass movement in individual cities and regions. In 1902-1903 Peasant unrest occurred in the Poltava and Kharkov provinces, strikes and demonstrations of workers took place in Zlatoust, Odessa, Kyiv, etc. The government’s position was worsened by the government’s failure in the Russo-Japanese War.

The ferment intensified, taking the form of organized anti-government struggle. Society was splitting. Political parties of various orientations began to emerge. They became the engine of political struggle in the country, often defending not so much national interests as narrow party platforms.

The largest parties were the Socialist Revolutionary Party (Socialist Revolutionaries), the Kadet Party (Constitutional Democratic Party), the Russian Social Democratic Party (RSDLP), the Octobrists (Union of October 17), and the Union of the Russian People.

In 1905-1907, massive anti-bourgeois strikes of workers took place in Russia. The strike movement continued with varying amplitudes until the end of 1905. Its peak was the October strike, which threatened to acquire an all-Russian character. Peasant protests against the landowners and unrest in national regions were active. The finale of 1905 was the December clashes between opponents and supporters of the authorities in Moscow, which escalated into barricade battles.

The events of 1905 forced the tsarist government to make serious adjustments to its policies. Most political parties (except for the Bolsheviks, anarchists, and Socialist-Revolutionaries-maximalists) assessed the revolution as effective. Social Democrats (both Bolsheviks and Mensheviks) qualified the events of 1905–1907 as a bourgeois-democratic revolution. According to Bolshevik views, it was supposed to develop into a socialist one. The Mensheviks believed that Russia must “grow” into socialism through a process of complex reforms.

As a result of the revolution, the Government provided opportunities for the legal activities of parties, convened the State Duma - an elected legislative body, proclaimed democratic freedoms, issued laws that gave workers guarantees of social protection, and began preparing agrarian reform.

By 1907, new government structures had been created in Russia that contributed to the development of parliamentarism, although the role of the executive bodies was still strong in them. Both the executive (Council of Ministers, Imperial Chancellery) and legislative bodies (State Duma and State Council) were subordinate to the emperor, who personified the supreme power. At the same time, in addition to executive functions, the Council of Ministers was also given legislative and advisory functions. The Governing Senate (the highest body of court and supervision) and the Holy Synod (the highest governing body of the Orthodox Church) were also subordinate to the Emperor.

In the created state system, centralization prevailed. Unlike Western Europe, where parliamentary traditions had developed over centuries, the Russian parliament in 1906 began to accumulate experience virtually from scratch. A certain period of time was needed to develop a political culture for both deputies and voters. The Duma resolved many important issues, adopted new laws and approved the country's state budget, and often took legislative initiatives. However, the imperfection of legislative and procedural mechanisms, the diversity of composition, and the psychological mood of the deputies did not allow the Duma to be the leader of the state-building process. It became an arena for inter-party polemics, often taking the form of mutual accusations and mutual revelations. The State Duma failed to revive the state-Zemstvo system and restore the historical tradition of Zemsky Sobors. It could not serve to consolidate social forces or establish friendly work - both the left and the liberals denied many of the original Russian moral values ​​and had a negativistic attitude towards Russian history. Mechanically copying Western European social models and patterns based on a different mentality, liberals did not bother themselves with a deep analysis of how these models would fall on Russian soil.

The tsarist government, which showed self-doubt after the defeat in the Japanese war, managed in 1906-1907. took the initiative in solving internal political problems, and in subsequent years relatively stabilized the political situation in the country.

3. Russian foreign policy at the beginning of the 20th century.

In 1894–1895 Japan began, and in 1897 Germany continued, territorial seizures in China, which served as a signal for the British, French, and Portuguese, who occupied a number of ports on the Chinese coast. Russia did not stand aside, but it - unlike others - focused not on military, but on political methods. Taking advantage of the friendship treaty concluded with China in 1896, which gave Russia the right to build the Chinese Eastern Railway, it secured the lease of Port Arthur and Dalny. This caused a sharp reaction from Japan. In January 1904, the Japanese attacked the Russian squadron near Port Arthur without declaring war.

A number of unfavorable factors (underestimation of the enemy’s military strength, surprise of the first strike from Japan, stretched Russian communications, unfinished rearmament of the army, serious operational and tactical blunders of the command of Russian troops, etc.) led to Russia’s defeat in the war. In August 1905, the Treaty of Portsmouth was signed, according to which Japan ceded South Sakhalin from Russia, the lease of the Liaodong Peninsula, and the South Manchurian Railway.

With the appointment of A.P. Izvolsky as Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1906, relations with European countries became a priority for Russian foreign policy. Izvolsky proclaimed the concept of “equilibrium”. Running a course “equidistant from London and Berlin became increasingly difficult.

Germany's economic expansion in the Near and Middle East affected the interests of both Russia and England. In 1907, Russia and England signed an agreement to resolve controversial issues in Iran, Afghanistan and Tibet.

In 1908, with the aggravation of the Balkan issue, tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary increased. In the national liberation struggle of the Slavic and Orthodox peoples against Turkish and Austrian rule, Russia acted as their natural ally. The Austrians' aggressive aspirations against Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina were based on their confidence in German support. Austria's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina sharply worsened Russia's relations with the Austro-German bloc. The policy of “balance” advocated by I.P. Izvolsky, failed - by the logic of events, Russia found itself “tied” to the Entente - England and France.

In 1910, S.D. became the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia. Sazonov. Under him, support for the liberation movement of the Balkan peoples was strengthened. Russia contributed to the creation and strengthening of their national statehood and the containment of Ottoman aggression. At the same time, Russia's role as an arbiter in Balkan affairs increased. Neither Germany and Austria-Hungary, nor England wanted to agree with this role. With their interference in intra-Balkan affairs, they completely confused all the contradictions between the countries of the region. This confusion entailed the threat of a global military conflict, which became inevitable due to the uncompromising position of the leaders of the opposing blocs - England and Germany.

The world was steadily sliding towards military catastrophe. First of all, this was associated with the growing aggressiveness of Germany and Austria.

At the end of July 1914, Austria began military operations against Serbia. Bound to Serbia by allied duty and historical obligations, Russia could not stand aside - Nicholas II issued a decree on general mobilization.

On August 1, 1914, Germany declared war on Russia, which soon turned into a world war. In the confrontation between states, Russia united with England and France (Entente). They were opposed by Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy (Triple Alliance). The fact that Germany was the first to declare war largely determined the growth of patriotic sentiment in Russia and the creation of the need to repel the enemy.

On August 4, 1914, in connection with the successful offensive of the German armies in Northern France, the government of the latter turned to Russia with a request to accelerate the timing of the offensive of the Russian armies. The Russian command, saving the allies, launched two corps under the command of generals A.V. on the offensive in East Prussia. Samsonov and P.K. Rennenkampf.

Initially, the offensive of the Russian troops developed successfully. To repel it, Germany was forced to remove some of its corps from the Western Front. Having concentrated significant forces, the enemy was able to defeat Samsonov's corps in the Grunwald area, but this defeat allowed the French army to win the battle on the Marne River. The fighting took place more successfully on the Russian-Austrian front. Here, by the end of 1914, the Russian armies took Lvov, the Przemysl fortress, and reached the foothills of the Carpathians. The enemy lost almost half of his troops. Austria-Hungary was subsequently unable to recover from the defeat and held the front thanks to the direct support of Germany.

In Russia, the first months of the war revealed the country’s insufficient preparation for a large-scale war. The army experienced an acute shortage of ammunition, equipment and especially heavy artillery.

The current situation required comprehension and search for a more optimal way of waging war. Germany found a way out - during 1915, inflict a decisive defeat on the Russian army and bring the country out of the war. In the second half of April, the offensive of the Austro-German troops began, carefully prepared and planned. Despite the heroism of Russian soldiers and repeated attempts to go on the offensive, a difficult retreat of the armies to the East began. By the fall of 1915, Poland, Lithuania, almost all of Galicia, and part of Volyn were lost. Losses in killed, wounded, and prisoners amounted to more than 2 million people.

No matter how great Germany's military successes were, it was unable to achieve the main thing - the surrender of the Russian army. However, military failures had their consequences for Russia's internal development.

In May 1916, the armies of the Southwestern Front under the leadership of A. Brusilov went on the offensive and inflicted a severe defeat on the Austrian army. The success came as a complete surprise to the allies, as well as to the enemies. Austria-Hungary was on the verge of defeat and subsequently did not undertake independent military operations. Germany was forced to suspend operations at Verdun in order to save the situation in the East.

The successes achieved could not change the fundamentally general situation. The war took on a protracted, positional character and increasingly turned into a meat grinder of human destinies. By the beginning of 1917, Russia had lost 2 million people killed, about 5 million people wounded, and about 2 million people captured. Anti-war sentiment is beginning to grow in the country.

Literature

1. Dolgiy A.M. Russian history. Tutorial. M.: INFRA-M, 2007.

2. History of Russia. Theories of learning. Book one, two / Under. ed. B.V. Lichman. Ekaterinburg: SV-96, 2006. – 304 p.

Russia at the beginning of the 20th century

The reign of Nicholas II became the time of the highest rates of economic growth in Russian history. During 1880–1910, the growth rate of industrial production exceeded 9% per year. According to this indicator, Russia has taken first place in the world, ahead of even the rapidly developing United States. The railway network has doubled. By the beginning of the 20th century, Russia was in third place in the world in iron smelting and first in oil production. An indicator of modernization was the growth in the number of city residents - the bourgeoisie, intelligentsia, and workers. At the beginning of the century, many large industrial enterprises were founded in Russia. European experience was widely used. However, the economic development of Russia was very uneven; it required liberal reforms, but they did not exist.

RUSSIAN EMPIRE, Russia - the official name of the Russian state in 1721–1917.

It was formed on the basis of the Russian state, which in 1721 Peter I declared an empire. It included: Russia proper, the Baltic states, Ukraine, Belarus, part of Poland, Bessarabia, the North Caucasus, Finland, Transcaucasia, Kazakhstan, Central Asia, Pamir. K con. 19th century The territory of the Russian Empire was 22.4 million km 2. (1/22 of the entire globe and about 1/6 of the surface of the entire land). The total length of the empire's border was 64,900 versts (a verst is equal to 1.0668 km), including the sea border - 46,270 versts. According to the 1897 census, the population was 128.2 million people, including the population of European Russia - 93.4 million people, the Kingdom of Poland - 9.5 million, the Grand Duchy of Finland - 2.6 million, the Caucasus Territory - 9 .3 million, Siberia - 5.8 million, Central Asia - 7.7 million. More than 200 peoples lived.

Until 1917, the term “Russians” was used as a general name for three East Slavic peoples: Great Russians (47% of the population), Little Russians (19%) and Belarusians (6.1%). Together they made up the absolute majority of the population - 83.3 million, or 71.9%. By 1914, the population of Russia had increased to 163 million people (excluding Poland and Finland). The share of Russian inhabitants in the world increased in 1858–1914. from 5 to 8%.

By 1914, the territory of the state was divided into 81 provinces and 20 regions; there were 947 cities. Some provinces and regions were united into governorates-general (Warsaw, Irkutsk, Kiev, Moscow, Amur, Stepnoe, Turkestan, Finland). The official vassals of the Russian Empire were the Khanate of Bukhara and the Khanate of Khiva. In 1914, the Uriankhai region (Tuva) was accepted under the protectorate of the Russian Empire.

Russia was a hereditary monarchy, headed by an emperor who had autocratic power. Members of his family and relatives made up the imperial family.

The dominant religion was Orthodoxy (the church was ruled by the emperor through the Synod). The entire population was considered subjects of the Russian Empire (the male population from 20 years old swore allegiance to the emperor). The subjects of the empire were divided into four classes (“states”): nobility, clergy, urban and rural inhabitants. The local population of Kazakhstan, Siberia and a number of other regions of the empire were separated into an independent class - foreigners.

The coat of arms of the Russian Empire is a double-headed eagle with royal regalia; The national flag is black, white and gold. Another flag was also used, the former Russian merchant fleet - white-blue-red (horizontal stripes); The national anthem is “God Save the Tsar.” National language - Russian.

As a result of the February Revolution of 1917, the autocratic government was overthrown and on September 14, 1917, a republic was proclaimed by the Provisional Government.

BOURGEOISIE - a layer of capitalist entrepreneurs engaged in economic activities with the aim of making a profit as a result of the use of their own or borrowed capital and hired labor on the basis of private property.

In the beginning. 20th century the social appearance of the Russian bourgeoisie was diverse: rich peasants, burghers, nobles and, of course, merchants. At the same time, to the end. 19th century in the Russian Empire, it was forbidden to conduct business activities for persons classified in one of 13 categories: priests, consuls on government salaries, employees and members of commercial courts, officers (could be intermediaries in trading operations), brokers (unless they traded in securities and foreign bills), clerks, merchants (not the 1st guild), Jews outside the Pale of Settlement, political exiles, four times bankrupt, persons under 21 years of age.

In the provisions on the trade tax, the permitted types of initiatives of business people included: maintaining wholesale stores and warehouses, purchasing agricultural products, maintaining commission, transport, forwarding houses and offices, large elevators, “trading baths”, taverns, restaurants and pharmacies, small wholesale enterprises (shops, stalls and tents), inns, peddling and delivery trade. Trade and industrial legislation allowed everyone to engage in commerce while maintaining state control - the registration system for establishing joint stock companies.

The organizational forms of entrepreneurial activity were joint stock companies: limited partnerships (a non-statutory version of a joint stock company), share partnerships, trading houses (in Moscow at the beginning of the 20th century there were 1022 of them, in St. Petersburg - 470, in Riga - 248), banking establishments in form of trading houses (46 in total). Then contractual associations began to appear - unions of several enterprises, structural associations, held together by the board of several companies.

To the beginning 20th century in the banking system, consisting of a variety of savings and loan partnerships and mutual credit societies, land and joint-stock commercial banks, the latter acquired the greatest importance. The largest of them were Russian-Asian, St. Petersburg International Commercial, Azov-Don Commercial, Russian for Foreign Trade and Russian Commercial and Industrial. They owned approx. 60% of fixed assets and liabilities.

Exchange activities have developed, the main purpose of which was by the beginning. 20th century was to serve as a wholesale market. The general scarcity of people's (peasant) savings and capital hampered the development of stock trading. Exchange societies and committees - associations of a territorial type - acted as guardians of the interests of individual industries: Moscow - textile workers of the Central Industrial Region, Kiev - sugar refineries, etc. According to the law, exchanges issued commercial certificates, mediation was carried out in disputes over trade and stock transactions.

With the start of the Special Meeting of the Agricultural Industry (1902), the history of the All-Russian Association of Exchange Organizations began. The first congress of the Special Meeting was held on November 27, 1906. At it, the Union of Stock Exchange Representatives, led by A. Prozorov and N. Avdakov, was formed, uniting the bourgeoisie. The weakness of Russian capitalism and the imperfection of market relations led to the plight of the workers. Workers' discontent has become a "ticking time bomb" under the edifice of Russian capitalism.

Before the revolution of 1905–1907 The bourgeoisie did not have a representative all-Russian organization or a common political party. After the Bolshevik revolution, restrictions on the rights of the bourgeoisie began, and in 1918, the curtailment of its activities began.

For many Russian entrepreneurs, material well-being, enrichment, and personal success were not an end in themselves. In an effort to earn public recognition, entrepreneurs cared about their prestige: patronage of the arts became one of the remarkable phenomena in the history of the fatherland. The cultural and educational activities of the Tretyakovs, Shanyavskys, Ostroukhovs, Morozovs, Bakhrushins, Shchukins, Ryabushinskys, Mamontovs, Soldatenkov, Tsvetkov, Polyakov, Burylin, Tereshchenko, and a number of entrepreneurs who financed Diaghilev’s projects were highly appreciated. One of the well-educated collectors, A. Titov restored the ensemble of the Rostov Kremlin, opened a museum of church antiquities, was elected a member of the Archaeological Society and the Society of Lovers of Ancient Writing and donated his collection to the Imperial Public Library.

Nerchinsk gold miners, the Butin brothers, who were elected to the Geographical Society thanks to their research activities, supported its Amur and East Siberian branches, opened a museum, music schools and a women's school, and bequeathed their collection to the city.

The breeder Yu. Nechaev-Maltsev, whose father in his youth was close to the Decembrists, and by the end of his life became the chief prosecutor of the Holy Synod, built a temple in Gus-Khrustalny, painted by Vasnetsov, published the magazine “Artistic Treasures of Russia”, allocated 2.5 million rubles out of 3 million 559 thousand spent on the construction of the Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow and the acquisition of exhibits for it. THAT.

NOBILITY - the highest class in the Russian Empire in the 18th century. 20th century, the dominant privileged class of secular landowners, whose ownership of inherited land was secured by law.

The term occurs with con. 12th century According to the “Code of Laws of the Russian Empire”, which was in force until 1917 (vol. IX, chapter 1, department 1, paragraph 15), the “rank of nobility” was understood as “a consequence flowing from the quality and virtues of men who died in ancient times, who distinguished themselves through merit, by which, turning the service itself into merit, they acquired a noble name for their offspring.” From 1797 to 1917 The “General Arms Book of the Noble Families of the All-Russian Empire” was published, and the “Genealogical Book of the Dominant Houses” was published, which included information about more than 60 thousand noble families.

After the abolition of serfdom (1861), the nobility gradually began to lose economic power. During this period, nobles joined the ranks of entrepreneurs. But as before, the ranks of military leaders, statesmen and politicians, as well as priests, scientists, architects and artists, poets and censors were recruited from the nobility. K con. 19 – beginning 20th century On the basis of the culture created by the nobles, a unique world phenomenon was formed - the Russian intelligentsia.

In 1906–1907, with the beginning of the Stolypin reforms, the nobility sold about 3.4 million acres of land. The country's largest landowners, whose farms contained about 70 million acres of land, represented by this time 30 thousand families.

In 1906–1917 there was an estate-political organization of the local nobility “United Nobility” of 81 provinces and 20 regions, united into governor-generals. She organized annual congresses of her representatives, in between which the “Permanent Council for the Association of Noble Societies” acted. The first chairman of the highest body of the all-Russian noble organization was A. Bobrinsky. Subsequently, this position was occupied by A. Naryshkin, A. Strukov and A. Samarin. The Permanent Council, which took a conservative position, collaborated with the “Union of the Russian People” (leaders N. E. Markov and V. M. Purishkevich were members of the Council), and was supported by many factions of the State Duma and the State Council. The decline of his influence is associated with the disengagement of members of the Permanent Council during the First World War. After the February Revolution of 1917, some of its representatives became part of the Provisional Government.

By the Bolshevik decree of November 8, 1917, the nobility was deprived of land ownership, and by the decree of the Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars “On the destruction of estates and civil ranks” (November 23, 1917), they were deprived of their estate status. People of noble origin were persecuted, and many were exterminated during the years of Soviet power. Some collaborated with the Bolshevik regime, which, however, did not save them from repression and death; others emigrated or became involved in the armed struggle against the Soviets, forming the basis of the White movement.

After 1917, noble trees continued not only in Russia: bearers of historical Russian surnames live in many countries of the world. They were included in the foreign reference book “Gothic Almanac”, published by N. N. Ikonnikov and Prince. D. M. Shakhovsky, and in a multi-volume publication prepared by the Moscow Noble Assembly, telling about Russian noble houses and coats of arms. Several issues have been published in Paris, giving an idea of ​​the life of representatives of Russian historical families abroad. The centers of attraction and settlement of the first wave of Russian emigration were Paris, Berlin, Prague, Harbin, Belgrade, Riga, Constantinople, the cities of Canada, the USA, and Latin American countries (mainly Mexico).

Deprived of hope of returning to Russia, the nobles, among whom were representatives of the royal family, scientists, priests and professors, doctors, publishers and writers, actors and artists, after the split of Russian society and forced exile, “founded Russia abroad”, preserving traditions and values, unacceptable for the Bolshevik regime, and continuing the creative activity that began in the Silver Age. The lot of the majority of nobles in emigration was poverty and misery.

Moscow noble assembly, headed by Prince. A.V. Golitsyn, resumed work in the con. 80 – beginning 90s Publishing activities are conducted and financed, various types of guardianship and charity are supported, and the work of genealogical and heraldic commissions is carried out. THAT.

PEASANTRY - a class of agricultural producers, the main population of Russia in the 1st half. 20th century

The peasantry, organized into communities, was the custodian of the traditional foundations of the Russian people, the bearer of folk culture and customs, and constituted that part of the Russian population from which the state drew the main human resources for solving national problems and defending the country.

In con. 19th century 87% of Russia's population (81.4 million people) lived in rural areas, of which 69.4 million (74%) were engaged in agriculture. In 1905, 17 million peasants were no longer engaged in agricultural work; due to the incompleteness of agrarian reforms and population growth in villages, the group of landless peasants increased. Two main processes took place in the village. Firstly, there was “de-peasantization”, that is, the peasants refused agricultural labor. Secondly, the stratification of peasants into groups of different property status occurred at an accelerated pace.

The bad harvests of 1898, 1901, 1906, famine in the Volga region, the Chernozem region, Georgia and Siberia led to peasant riots, the seizure of landowners' lands, and the burning of estates. During the period 1902–1904. There were 670 uprisings with the looting of estates. Professional revolutionaries, who claimed to express the interests of the peasants, formed the Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1901.

Under the threat of revolution, the government began preparing peasant (agrarian) reform: S. Yu. Witte put forward his project. He advocated the gradual introduction of private ownership of allotment land, the intensification of the activities of the Peasant Land Bank, the expansion of bank loans and assistance in the resettlement of peasants to undeveloped lands. Committees were created in the provinces to determine the needs of the rural population.

The peasants of 16 provinces of Central Russia expressed to the government in written decisions of the gathering, the so-called. worldly sentences and orders, its socio-economic program. This movement of peasants led to the organization in the fall of 1905 of the All-Russian Peasant Union. In 1905–1906 Mass peasant uprisings swept the entire country.

Most of the orders in preparation for the elections to the 1st and 2nd State Dumas contained complaints about high rental prices for land, remote lands, interstriped land, mining, poor inventory, demands for the abolition of the peasant class, existing local government and private ownership of land, equalization of use land in artels and partnerships, transferring landowner, state, appanage, monastic and church lands into the hands of the people - the land should belong to those who cultivate it with their labor. The peasants, oppressed by the lack of land and suffering oppression from both the landowner and the private landowner and calling the land “God’s” and “nobody’s,” opposed private ownership of it.

After the 1st Russian Revolution, the government carried out the Stolypin reform, which was supposed to stimulate the private interests of the peasant and create a layer of wealthy villagers, reliable tax payers. However, among the resolutions of peasant assemblies there was not a single one approving the Stolypin reform.

On average, the financial situation of the peasantry in the beginning. 20th century improved, peasants bought up landowners' lands (by 1913 they bought 34 million dessiatines of land worth more than 4 billion rubles), peasant spending on consumer goods doubled, production of grain, meat and dairy products increased. THAT.

WORKING CLASS is one of the main classes of modern society, hired workers engaged in the production of material products in industrial enterprises. Although in developed countries workers often act as owners of part of the shares of their enterprise, their main source of livelihood remains wages.

The emergence of the working class in Russia occurred in the 2nd half. 19th century, when, after the abolition of serfdom, the rapid development of the industrial sector began in the country. However, at the beginning of the 20th century. Russia's working class was still small. The share of workers together with their families in 1913 was less than 15% of the total population of the country. During these years, about half of the workers could neither read nor write. The financial situation of workers was very different and depended not only on their profession, but also on their place of residence. The length of the working day in Russia was gradually reduced from 14 hours in 1861 to 10 hours in 1913, but remained higher than in other advanced industrial countries. In addition, overtime work was widely used, increasing the working day to 11–12 hours. Annual wages of a factory worker in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. averaged 207 rubles, 2–3 times lower than the wages of Western European workers and 4 times lower than the wages of American workers.

From the beginning 20th century Socialist ideas quickly spread among the working class. Workers' organizations appeared: health insurance funds, cooperatives, councils of elders, trade unions, etc. In 1905, Councils of Workers' Deputies arose. The working class became the leading force in all early Russian revolutions. 20th century As a rule, the workers sided with the most radical revolutionary parties, primarily the Bolsheviks, which contributed to the rise to power of V.I. Lenin and his supporters in October 1917. D.Ch.

WITTE Sergei Yulievich (17(29)06.1849–28.02(13.03)–1915) – count, statesman, economist, actual state councilor, honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, memoirist.

Born in Tiflis into a family of immigrants from Holland, who received Russian nobility in 1856. In 1870 he graduated from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of Novorossiysk University (Odessa). He served in the Office of the State Odessa Railway. In 1878 - head of the operational department under the board of the South-Western Railways (St. Petersburg). Since 1886 – manager of the South-Western Railway (Kyiv). He paid great attention to equipping railways and the Odessa port. In 1889, on the recommendation of Alexander III, he was approved as director of the Railway Department in the Ministry of Finance. He contributed to the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway.

In 1892 he became Minister of Railways, and then Minister of Finance. Under him, the influence of the state on the economy expanded significantly. Witte paid special attention to the training and placement of personnel - attracting people with higher education and practical work experience to management. In con. 80s The main directions in the sphere of his economic activity were the establishment of a wine monopoly and monetary reform, active railway construction (he achieved the conclusion of a Russian-Chinese concession agreement on the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway). Carried out a reform of commercial and industrial taxation. At his request, all commercial educational institutions were subordinated to the Ministry of Finance (from 1896 to 1902, 147 educational institutions were opened). He strongly recommended that the government make wider use of zemstvos in practical work.

Since 1903 - Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers. In foreign policy, he opposed active expansion in the Far East, realizing that it could lead to a clash with Japan. Subsequently, it was he who achieved the conclusion of the Portsmouth Peace Treaty. Witte is the author of the Manifesto of October 17, 1905. Since October 1905, Chairman of the reformed Council of Ministers, he gave the green light to sending punitive expeditions to suppress revolutionary uprisings in the country. When discussing fundamental laws, he demanded that the rights of the State Duma and the State Council be curtailed. Since 1906, he retired from active political activity and took up journalism. Author of “Memoirs” (in 3 volumes). He died and was buried in Petrograd. A.D.

ZUBATOV Sergei Vasilievich (1864–1917) – statesman, one of the organizers of political investigation in the Russian Empire, gendarmerie colonel.

An outstanding detective specialist, Zubatov was the initiator of the policy of “police socialism” (“Zubatovism”). For a number of years he worked in operational work at the Police Department. Since 1896 he headed the Moscow Security Department. Among his paid agents was the Socialist Revolutionary Azef, who betrayed the entire terrorist organization of the Socialist Revolutionaries to the police.

In 1902, when security departments were created in all provinces, Zubatov headed the Special Department in the Police Department - an emergency body to combat the revolutionary movement and especially terrorism. The department coordinated the work of the secret police throughout the country. Implementing the idea of ​​police socialism, he planted workers' organizations in the capitals and largest cities of Russia under his control. Thus, he founded the “Council of Mechanical Workers of Moscow”, the “Society for Mutual Aid of Textile Workers”, “Jewish Independent Party”, etc. After these organizations began to participate in the strikes of 1903, they were liquidated by the government.

After the February Revolution he committed suicide. A.D.

KOKOVTSOV Vladimir Nikolaevich (04/06/18/1853–1943) – count, statesman.

Born in St. Petersburg into an impoverished noble family. Due to the death of his father, he was unable to continue his education and entered the service in the Ministry of Justice. Moving up the career ladder, in 1904 he was appointed Minister of Finance, and from September 1911 - Chairman of the Council of Ministers. He was Stolypin's successor. In 1914, the Tsar dismissed him from all positions, but before the February Revolution he was a member of the State Council. Since 1910, he worked on the introduction of universal education in the country (to be implemented by 1920). He sharply opposed the war with Germany, believing that it would inevitably lead to revolution. During World War I, he served as chairman of the 2nd (economic) department of the State Council.

After the revolution he was arrested, but was soon released. He and his wife crossed the Finnish border illegally. In exile, he was chairman of the board of a commercial bank, took part in the political debates of emigrants, wrote articles against the destruction of Russian culture in Soviet Russia, memoirs, and edited books on the Russian economy. In 1933, his notes “From My Past” were published in 2 volumes in Paris. Died in Paris.

SVYATOPOLK-MIRSKY Petr Danilovich (16(28).05.1857–1914) – prince, adjutant general, minister of internal affairs (1904–1905), statesman.

He was governor in Penza and Ekaterinoslav, in 1900–1902. - comrade of the Minister of Internal Affairs and commander of a separate corps of gendarmes, in 1902–1903. - Governor-General of Vilna, Grodno and Kovno. In August 1904 he was appointed Minister of the Interior.

In the context of a developing political crisis, he proclaimed the “era of trust” of the government in society: easing censorship, allowing congresses of zemstvo leaders, and partial amnesty. He proposed establishing savings and loan banks for workers, providing them with apartments in factories and factories, and in the future introducing compulsory state insurance with the participation of entrepreneurs.

As the labor movement grew, the reforms were curtailed, which was one of the factors that led to the 1st Russian Revolution. THAT.

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To better understand what Russia was like at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, I want to quote the words of Leo Tolstoy from his letter to Nicholas 2 dated January 16, 1906. None of the historians described the situation in Russia of that era better.

Russia is in a position of increased security, that is, outside the law. The army and police (overt and covert) are increasing. The prisons are overcrowded. Even workers are now considered political prisoners. Censorship has reached the point of absurd prohibitions that it has never achieved before. Religious persecution has never been so severe. As a result, those 100 million on which Russia's power rests are impoverished. It is becoming so poor that hunger has now become a normal occurrence. Even 50 years ago, under Nicholas 1, the prestige of royal power was very high. Now it has fallen so much that even representatives of the lower classes criticize not only the government, but also the tsar.

Lev Tolstoy

Population

The first official population census (without economic implications) in the Russian Empire took place in 1897 and counted 125 million people in the country. The second census of 1914 recorded 178.1 million people (an increase of 53.1 million over 17 years). The rate of population growth was high and it was calculated that if Russia manages to reach the mid-20th century without external and internal shocks, then the population in the country will be about 350 million inhabitants.

Russia at the beginning of the 20th century was a multinational country. The same 1914 census recorded the following composition of the population:

• Russians - 44.6%
• Ukrainians - 18.1%
• Poles - 6.5%
• Jews - 4.2%
• Belarusians - 4.0%
• Kazakhs - 2.7%
• Other nations - each no more than 2%

The official language of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century is Russian. At the same time, there was no oppression based on language, and other peoples could use their language for communication.

Estates

An important characteristic of the Russian population of the early 20th century was the preservation of classes. The bulk of the population are peasants, whose class made up just over 80% of the country's population. There were approximately 1.5% of nobles in Russia, but it was the leading class that consolidated power. The nobility was not united; it was divided into hereditary and personal.

The problem of the nobility was acute in Russia, since according to the reform of 1861, the nobles were formally deprived of all rights of exclusive land use. This was the starting point, after which the position of the nobility began to deteriorate, and with them the power of the Emperor became less and less strong. As a result, the events of 1917 happened.

A separate important class in Russia is the clergy. At the beginning of the 20th century it was divided into categories:

• Black (monastic). Monks who have taken a vow of celibacy.
• White (parish). Priests who are allowed to have a family.

Despite the important status of the clergy, the church continued to be under state control.

Autonomy

Autonomy is a characteristic feature of the development of the Russian state. The empire, annexing new lands into its composition, in most cases provided these lands with autonomy, preserving their national traditions, religion, and so on. Finland had the most complete autonomy, which had its own parliament, legislation and money. I specifically emphasized this system of preserving autonomies, which was relevant at the beginning of the 20th century, so that you could compare how Russia annexed regions and how Western countries did it. Suffice it to remember that as a result of the colonization of North America by Europeans, the Indians (the indigenous population) were almost completely exterminated, and the part that remained alive was placed in special reservations - pens for cattle, from which it was impossible to get out.

Autonomy was also granted to the Baltic peoples and Poland to the west. The autonomy of these regions was curtailed in terms of political freedoms, since, for example, the Polish population Always advocated the restoration of the Polish state, which means it actively fought underground against Russia.

The best indicator of maintaining the cultural integrity of autonomies was religion. Despite the dominance of the Orthodox Church (76% of the population), other religions remained: Islam (11.9%), Judaism (3.1%), Protestantism (2.0%), Catholicism (1.2%).

Territory

At the beginning of the last century, Russia's scale was at its peak geographically, and naturally it was the largest country in the world. The western borders of the state were with Norway, Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire.

The Russian state included: modern Moldova, Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Finland, and partly Poland. I would like to note that the current capital of Poland, Warsaw, was part of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.

We looked at the territory of Russia in Europe, since this was the theater where the main actions of that era took place. If we talk about Asia, all states that later joined the USSR were also included in Russia.

Governance and laws

Russia at the beginning of the 20th century continued to remain a monarchy, when in the 1st article of the code of laws of the country it was written that “the emperor is an autocrat with unlimited power.” Power in the country was passed on by inheritance to the eldest in the family. In this case, preference was given to males.

Control system

The main figure in the country was the Emperor. He had the main functions in governing the country. The Romanov dynasty itself and all the people who belonged to it had influence on the emperor and influenced the politics of Russia. According to the laws of that time, only Orthodox Christians could be members of the ruling dynasty, so when representatives from other countries joined the dynasty, they were immediately baptized into the Orthodox faith.

Since 1810, the State Council functioned in Russia - an advisory body that provided legislative ideas to the Emperor, but the adoption of law was the sole function of the Emperor.

Executive power was concentrated in the hands of the Ministries. There was no government or prime ministers above the ministries. Each minister reported directly to the ruler (this is a feature of the imperial regime). The most important ministries of the Russian Empire of the late 19th - early 20th centuries: internal affairs, military, foreign affairs, finance and public education. Ministries created a huge number of officials. According to official statistics in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century there was 1 official per 3 thousand people. It was the largest bureaucracy in the world. A typical problem for tsarist officials was corruption and bribery. This was largely due to low wages. The obvious problem with the large apparatus of officials was the inability to make important decisions quickly.

Judicial functions

The highest judicial power in the country, since the time of Peter 1, belonged to the Senate. He performed the functions of the judiciary, supervisory authorities and interpretation of laws. The judicial power itself relied on the judicial reform of the 60s of the 19th century. Russia practiced equality, jury trials and openness. In practice, inequality still persisted, since numerous laws of the Russian Empire left many loopholes for lawyers. Whoever could hire them won in the courts.

Regarding the judicial system of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, it is important to note that a special method of judicial proceedings was applied to political criminals (anyone could be classified as such if there was a strong desire). After the assassination of Alexander 2, the law “On the preservation of order and public peace” was adopted. According to him - in relation to political prisoners, the verdict was made not by the court, but by officials.

Local government

The local government system functioned on the basis of the laws of the 60s of the 19th century. Zemstvos were created locally, which resolved exclusively local issues (construction of roads, schools, and so on. By the beginning of the 20th century, the functions of zemstvos had changed somewhat. Now a bureaucratic apparatus was built over them, completely controlling all the functions of local authorities.

Self-government bodies were divided into:

• Urban. City Dumas were formed, to which only owners of houses in the city could be elected.
• Rural. Village gatherings or “worlds” were formed.

Every year the role of local authorities became lower and lower, and new control organizations appeared above them.

Army and security

The Police Department (analogous to the current Ministry of Internal Affairs) dealt with internal security issues. The police network was extensive and, on the whole, did not cope with its functions well enough. It is enough to recall only the numerous attempts on members of the imperial house to be convinced of this.

The size of the army at the beginning of the 20th century exceeded 900 thousand people. The army continued to remain regular, formed on the principle of conscription. Conscription was universal, but benefits were provided. The only sons in the family, breadwinners, teachers and doctors were exempt from military service. Today there is a lot of talk about the fact that the army of the Russian Empire was the best in the world. You can definitely argue with this. It is enough to recall the Russo-Japanese War to understand that the problems in the army and in its administration were significant. The limitations of the command are also emphasized by the First World War, in which Russia entered practically without artillery (the command was convinced that this was a hopeless type of weapon). In reality, 75% of all losses in that war were from artillery.

Economy

The problems that characterized Russia at the end of the 19th century were reflected in the economic development of the country at the beginning of the 20th century. It is no coincidence that at this stage there are 2 revolutions and significant discontent among the population. There are 3 points of view on the economy of that era:

If we highlight the main features of the Russian economy of that period, we can highlight: the formation of monopolies, the preservation of a largely serf-based economic system, the complete dependence of the economy on the state, and the uneven economic development of regions.

The state made attempts to solve the problem that had accumulated in the economy. For this purpose, Witte's reforms and Stolypin's agrarian reform were undertaken. These reforms did not radically change the situation, and at the beginning of the 20th century in Russia there was a decline in production and the standard of living of the majority of the population. This is where the social dynamite that exploded in 1917 lies.

The situation in the village

The events of 1893 are very important for understanding the situation in the Russian village at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. This year a law was passed limiting the community's right to redistribute land. Now the land was divided once every 12 years. What does it mean? Every 12 years the land was divided anew. That is, the community took a plot of land from one peasant and gave it to another. Some historians talk about the low significance of these events, but this is not so. The land issue has always been very acute in Rus' and most riots, uprisings and revolutions happened precisely because of the land issue. Subsequent events best represent the significance of the 1893 law. It is enough to add 12 years to convince of this. The following dates are obtained:

• 1905 (1893 + 12) - first revolution
• 1917 (1905 + 12) - February revolution followed by the October revolution
• 1929 (1917 + 12) - start of collectivization

Due to the nature of the redistribution, agriculture suffered greatly. There was no point in investing in land. Anyway, after 12 years this plot will be given to someone else. Therefore, it was necessary to squeeze out the maximum in 12 years, and then let another owner think about restoring the land’s productivity. And this point of view was widespread!

Once again I want to emphasize the years of land redistribution: 1905, 1917, 1929. These are the most important years of Russian history, and if they are considered without taking into account the specifics of land redistribution, it is impossible to understand the real events in the Russian village in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. After all, the overwhelming majority of the population were peasants, and they are fed by the land. Therefore, in the literal sense of the word, the peasants were ready to kill for the land.

International relationships

After the reign of Alexander 3, Russia was very often characterized as a powerful country, but too distant from European political processes. This was fully consistent with the interests of the Empire, and Nicholas 2 promised to continue this policy. This could not be done. As a result, Russia was drawn into a world war.

The early 20th century saw the rise of the German Empire, which grew stronger every year and showed signs of subduing Europe. If we consider this process objectively, Germany did not threaten Russia in any way, but Nicholas 2, who in words guaranteed the Empire’s path to isolation from European intrigues, was in fact afraid of Germany and began to look for allies. Thus began a rapprochement with France, and after the signing of the Franco-English treaty, the Entente was formed. I will not now describe in detail the idiocy of the behavior of Nicholas 2 (this topic is well discussed in the material about the First World War), but it was his fear of Germany that allowed Russia to be drawn into the war, where its Entente allies (France and England) did not help at all and more interfered.

Russia's traditional rival, the Ottoman Empire, was experiencing a clear decline, and questions were increasingly raised in Russian society about the need to take Constantinople away from Turkey. It is noteworthy that this should have happened (all documents were signed) after the First World War. This is precisely one of the reasons why Western countries so quickly recognized the Russian revolution as legitimate